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into a book, the Qur’an (or Koran). Devout Muslims consider the Qur’an to be the direct word of God, and therefore a holy, perfect scripture. After the capitulation of Mecca, Muhammad sent envoys through- out the Arab world, inviting the scattered tribes to become Muslims. Most of the tribes quickly joined; those that did not were conquered by the growing Muslim armies and forced to convert at the point of a sword. By the time of Muhammad’s death in 632, Islam had spread throughout the Arabian Peninsula and north into Syria. Islam came to the region of modern-day Iraq shortly after Muhammad’s death. In 634 the Islamic caliph, who was selected to lead the Muslims after Muhammad, sent his armies on raids into Mesopotamia. In a series of battles between 634 and 636, the Arabs soundly defeated the Sassanid forces, despite being outnumbered six to one. At this time, most people living in Mesopotamia followed Christianity. The Muslims allowed them to practice their religion, so long as they paid a special tax to the conquering Arabs. Arab set- tlers also poured into Mesopotamia from Arabia, living along the fertile plains of the Tigris and Euphrates. Over time, the natives of Mesopotamia intermarried with the Arab newcomers, and most converted to Islam. The Iraq area was the site of a major division in the Islamic faith—the break between Sunni and Shiite Muslims. The split arose out of a disagreement over who should be the caliph. Most Muslims supported the selection of the caliph based on his piety; these became known as the Sunni Muslims. However, a minority insisted that the caliph should be a member of Muhammad’s family—par- ticularly, the prophet’s son-in-law Ali and his descendants. These Muslims became known as Shiites. The Shiites also felt that the Sunni caliphs misinterpreted the Qur’an. The two groups fought for power until the Battle of Karbala in 680, when the Shiite leader