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I RAQ ’ S H ISTORY TO 1990 55

and its wealth of oil. They bombed some Kurdish villages and demolished others with tanks, killing hundreds of Kurds. This repression turned many Iraqis against the Baath Party. On November 18, 1963, President Arif ordered the military to attack the Baath National Guard in Baghdad, in order to solidify his own control over the country. To protect his government against further coups, Arif formed the Republican Guard from members of his own clan, stationing them around the city of Baghdad. Then he purged the government of its Baathist members. Less than three years later, in April 1966, President Arif died in a helicopter crash, and his brother, General Abd al-Rahman Arif, became president. The new leader arranged a cease-fire with the Kurds. He also permitted the people of Iraq more freedom than they had enjoyed under any government since the overthrow of the monarchy. However, in 1966 the Baath Party was renewed under the leadership of General Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr, who appointed his cousin Saddam Hussein deputy secretary-general of the Regional Command of the Baath Party. In 1968 three key officers in the Iraqi army led a coup that over- threw Arif’s government and sent Arif into exile. Hassan al-Bakr became the president of Iraq, and Abd al-Razzaq al-Nayif, one of the three coup leaders, became prime minister. The Baath Party learned from its mistakes of 1963. When the party seized power in 1968, it again did so with the help of military officers. However, soon after the coup the Baath leaders moved against the military. Al-Nayif was exiled, top officers were purged, and key Baath Party members were installed in the leadership posi- tions. To inspire fear in anyone who might oppose his rule, Hassan al-Bakr ordered some of his opponents hanged in the streets of Baghdad. Saddam Hussein was placed in charge of the Baath Party’s militia, and he showed no mercy when dealing with dissidents. In 1972 Iraq nationalized its oil fields—meaning that revenue