9781422278215

EXPLORING NATURE

BUTTERFLIES & MOTHS FROGS INSECTS ROCKS & MINERALS SNAKES & REPTILES SPIDERS WILDFLOWERS

BUTTERFLIES & MOTHS

P AUL S TERRY

ABOUT THE AUTHOR The author of numerous books on wildlife and natural history subjects, including Wildlife Travelling Companion: East Africa , and Nature Watching , PAUL STERRY holds a PhD in zoology from the University of London and has been a research fellow at Sussex University. A world traveller, Mr. Sterry has photographed and researched natural history subjects in places as diverse as the Amazon, the Galapagos, and Alaska. He lives in Hampshire, England.

MASON CREST

MASON CREST 450 Parkway Drive, Suite D Broomall, Pennsylvania 19008 (866) MCP-BOOK (toll-free)

Copyright © 2018 by Mason Crest, an imprint of National Highlights, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission from the publisher.

First printing 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

ISBN (hardback) 978-1-4222-3956-8 ISBN (series) 978-1-4222-3955-1 ISBN (ebook) 978-1-4222-7821-5

Cataloging-in-Publication Data on file with the Library of Congress

QR CODES AND LINKS TO THIRD-PARTY CONTENT You may gain access to certain third-party content (“Third-Party Sites”) by scanning and using the QR Codes that appear in this publication (the “QR Codes”). We do not operate or control in any respect any information, products, or services on such Third-Party Sites linked to by us via the QR Codes included in this publication, and we assume no responsibility for any materials you may access using the QR Codes. Your use of the QR Codes may be subject to terms, limitations or restrictions set forth in the applicable terms of use or otherwise established by the owners of the Third-Party Sites. Our linking to such Third-Party Sites via the QR Codes does not imply an endorsement or sponsorship of such Third- Party Sites, or the information, products, or services offered on or through the Third- Party Sites, nor does it imply an endorsement or sponsorship of this publication by the owners of such Third-Party Sites.

Copyright © MMXIII by New Line Books Limited All rights reserved.

PHOTO CREDITS Photographer: Page Number Doug Lemke/Shutterstock: Cover Edward S. Ross: Back Cover

Aquila Photographics: J. P. Black 45 (bottom), J. Corton 33 (bottom), Sawford/Castle 67 (bottom), M. Gilroy 5, 11 (top), 15 (bottom), 36 (bottom), 51, 53 (top), N. W. Harwood 21, 63, 74, 79, Adrian Hoskins 45 (top), 46 (top), Mike Lane 12 (top), T. Leach 47 (top), 49 (bottom), R. T. Mills 68 (bottom) Harry N. Darrow: 14 (bottom), 46 (bottom), 56-57, 77 (top) Dembinsky Photo Associates: Russ Gutshall 18, Skip Moody 59, 72-73, Rod Planck 8-9, 69, 70 Stephen Kirkpatrick: 6 Joe McDonald: 12 (bottom), 60 Nature Photographers Ltd.: Andrew Cleave 17, Edward S. Ross 14 (top), 20 (bottom), 23, 28 (bottom), 33 (top), 36 (top), 43 (top), 47 (bottom), 49 (middle), 50 (top), 52, 71 (bottom) Gail Shumway: 3, 11 (bottom), 13, 15 (top), 22, 26, 27, 28 (top), 31, 32, 34 (top), 34 (bottom), 35 (top), 35 (bottom), 37, 38, 44, 48, 53 (bottom), 54 (top), 54 (bottom), 55, 57 (top), 57 (bottom), 58, 64 (top), 66, 75, 76 (bottom), 77 (bottom) Tom Stack & Associates: John Gerlach 24-25, 40-41, Kerry Givens 65, Don & Esther Phillips 16, 20 (top), 39, Milton Rand 7, 71 (top), 76 (top), John Shaw 4, 42, 43 (bottom), Larry Tackett 61 (top), 64 (bottom), Denise Tackett 29 The Wildlife Collection: Kenneth Deitcher 10, Tim Laman 19, 61 (bottom), 67 (top), Clay Myers 68 (top), Bob Parks 62, 78, Jack Swenson 30, 49 (top)

INTRODUCTION

The patterns seen on the underwings of this Malaysian lacewing (Cethosia hypsea) are extremely striking. It is often the case that forest species have bright colors or strong markings, which presumably facilitate recognition by others of the same species.

I magine a warm summer morning in an ancient oak woodland in southern England. Shafts of sunlight begin to cut through the tree canopy and cast bright highlights on the leaves carpeting the woodland floor. Sud- denly a shadow passes over the leaves as a purple emperor (Apatura iris) takes its first flight of the day. One of the largest of European butterflies, it glides gracefully toward the ground where it visits a muddy puddle to drink. With wings closed, the beautifully marked orange-brown underwings are revealed. Occasionally, however, the purple emperor nervously flicks open its wings revealing truly splen-

3

The following text explains the inter- nal functions and structure of butterflies andmoths,referredtocollectivelyasLep- idoptera—which can be literally trans- lated as “scale-wing,” a reference to the coating of scales found on the wings of most species. The range of species found throughout the world is explored as are their day-to-day lives and their fascinat- ing life cycles. With nearly 150,000 spe- cies of Lepidoptera known in the world, and many yet to be discovered, there is certainly no shortage of subject matter for study.

didupperwings. At certainangles these look brown and white, but when the light is right, a magnificent metallic- purple sheen is seen, and the contrast between the two surfaces will astonish any onlooker. The butterfly drinks for sev- eral minutes and is joined by a range of other insects. Soon, its thirst quenched, it flies powerfully upward to spend the rest of the day disputing territories and searching for mates among the crowns of the tallest oak trees.

The emergence of a butterfly, such as this monarch (Danaus plexippus) , from a pupa is one of the true miracles of nature. The metamorphosis may take a matter of only a few minutes, but it is preceded by weeks of complex changes in the internal structure of the insect.

Using its long proboscis, this monarch (Danaus plexippus) is probing a flower for nectar. When not feeding, butterflies can coil up this apparatus; it then becomes partly hidden beneath the head.

5

BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS AS INSECTS Butterflies and moths belong to a group of invertebrate animals called insects, them­ selves members of a larger systematic grouping called the Arthropods. Insects are extremely varied both in terms of size and appearance but all the members of this group

share certain characteristics. Insects have an external skeleton made of a hardened proteinlike material called chitin and, more fundamentally, all adult insect bodies are divided into three distinct sections: the head, the thorax, and the abdomen. The head bears important sensory organs including the eyes and antennae as well as the mouthparts; the thorax carries three pairs of legs and the wings, of which there are two pairs visible in almost all cases; the abdomen, which is segmented, contains the reproduc- tive, excretory, and digestive systems. Like all insects, butterflies and moths have life cycles

The wings of a butterfly are covered with layers of tiny scales, arranged like roofing tiles. The scales are pigmented and produce the color we so admire, such as in this western tiger swallowtail (Pterourus rutulus).

Following page: At rest, the hindwings of the io moth are hidden by the forewings. When alarmed, however, these are spread to reveal startling eyespots, which have the effect of temporarily putting off would-be predators.

Resting on tree bark, this tulip tree beauty (Epimecis bortaria) is amazingly well camouflaged. Moths with such cryptic patterning are usually adept at positioning themselves for best effect.

7

onto a light-receptive layer at the back of the eye, butterfly eyes are made up of thousands of elongated cells called ommatidia, each of which contains a tiny lens and a receptor. Each ommatidium forms an image of its own and thousands of these are combined to create an overall pattern. Because but- terfly eyes are hemispherical, a wide angle of vision is encompassed. However, he com- pound image is not so well formed as the image humans see with their eyes. Insects are very good at detecting movement but not very capable of picking out fine details. They are, however, perfectly able to carry on their lives, often using specific colors or ultraviolet petal markers to locate flowers for feeding.

that involve several very different stages. In the case of Lepidoptera, these comprise the egg, the caterpillar or larva, the chrysalis or pupa, and the adult. Although butterflies and moths are closely related and are both termed Lepidoptera, there are subtle differences between the two. The way that most of us tell at a glance whether we are looking at a butterfly or at a moth is usually by whether it is flying during the day or at night. Butterflies are day-flying insects and, by and large, are only active when the sun is shining. Moths, on the other hand, are largely nocturnal, venturing out to feed only after dark. There are, as one might expect, exceptions to these rules, especially in the moth world, in which there are plenty of examples of day-flying species. The shape of the antennae (discussed below) can also be a useful means of distinguishing between butterflies and moths, as can the way that the wings are held at rest: butterflies usu- ally rest with wings folded over their backs while moths rest with the wings out flat. The Head Possessing two antennae, two large eyes, and a proboscis, the head of a butterfly or moth is vital to its survival. With it the insect gets all the information it needs about the world around it, and, in many species, it is utilized to imbibe vital nutrients. The eyes of adult insects, including butter- flies and moths, are called compound eyes and are very different in structure from, for example, conventional mammalian eyes. Instead of having a single lens focusing light

The flexibility of a butterfly’s proboscis can be seen clearly in this photograph. This great orange tip (Hebomoia glaucippe) probes deep into the nectaries of this flower in search of food. 

Beautiful salmon-pink patches and a rich marbling of brown, buff, and black adorn the underwings of this American painted lady (Vanessa virgin- iensis). Two eyespots on the underside of the hindwing distinguish this species from a similar painted lady (Vanessa cardui), which has four or five.

The males of luna moths (Actius luna) , together with many of their relatives, have large, feathery antennae. The increased surface area this provides enables them to detect with greater efficiency the scent given off by female moths.

11

insects unwittingly carry pollen from one flower to another. Antennae are also used to find a mate. In many (and probably all) spe- cies, the female exudes a special chemical called a pheromone which helps the male to locate her. This is clearly more important in some species than in others. Male emperor moths (Pavonia pavonia), for example, have antennae that are large and feathery, thus increasing their surface area in order to better detect a mate. So acute is their sense of smell that males can detect a female downwind at a range of up to a kilometre or so, and often before she has fully emerged from her cocoon. Although the adults of some butterfly and moth species do not feed per se, most have strong appetites. They do not possess biting or chewing mouthparts like other insects such as beetles, or indeed as they do in their own larval stage, and instead have a pro- boscis which is used to feed on liquid food sources. This comprises a long, slender tube that is held coiled and at least partly hidden when the insect is not feeding. It can be unraveled at will and inserted into the nec- tar-bearing parts of flowers, which are them- selves often adapted to suit the mouthparts of a particular species.

Named for the curious white marking on the underside of its hindwing, the comma (Polygonia c-album) is widespread in Europe. The irregular outline of the wings afford it good camouflage when resting among dry leaves.

The antennae of butterflies and moths are usually very conspicuous when the insect is active, although they may be partly hidden when at rest. They are important sensory organs in everyday life, aiding with balance in flight and with the detection of smells. In most species the antennae are long and straight. Butterfly antennae are normally clubbed at the tip while those of most moths are slender and tapering. An exception can be found in the feathery antennae of certain male moths. Antennae are used to locate flowers, which are a rich source of nectar for butterflies and moths. Many plants give off a fragrance that lures insects to feed from them; in return,

Hawkmoths such as this striped hawkmoth (Hyles lineata) are renowned for the speed and power of their flight. This one is hovering in front of a flower and using its long proboscis to collect nectar.

The beautiful patterning on

the wings of this white tree nymph (Idea leuconoe) from Malaysia highlight the veins that give them support. This specimen has alighted on flowers to feed on nectar.

12