Eternal India Encyclopedia

Eternal India encyclopedia

RELIGIONS

hunting. It is believed that contact with women, specially sexual, diminishes the power of the man. (d) Other taboos such, as not cooking in a new house before it is 'consecrated', entering or leaving a village during certain festivals, working on certain tabooed days. 6. Totems and other animal-human relations : A totem (from the Ojibwa Native American tribal language meaning "brother-sister kin") is usually a species of animal or plant or bird or insect or, very rarely, an inanimate object so intimately related to a group of human beings that the group is believed to be descendants of the totem, which is governed by certain taboos. The group or clan which traces its origin to such a totem is frequently named after the totem. Such totemic relationships constitute a form of social organisation and religious practice, which separates the totem group or clan from others, each with its own totem. Common animal totems are tiger, calf, peacock, tortoise, cobra, elephant, monkey, buffalo, bear, jackal, dog, deer and so forth. Familiar plant totems include rice, wheat, sandalwood, cucumber, peppers. More specifically, among the Mundas, horo means "tortoise"; hao means "red ant"; tirkey means "red ant" in Oraon. Bison-horn Marias have a series of related clan names, such as Bakraban or "goat race," Nagban or "cobra race," Kadiarban or "cuckoo race". Among the Tangkhul Nagas there is a clan named Harvanao or "children of the cock," while among the Khasis one finds clan names like Diengdoh, the name of a tree or Tham, meaning "crab" or Shrih, meaning "monkey". The religious significance of totems may be seen in the distinctive attitude of totem members toward the totem animal or plant. The totem is so sacred to the particular clan bearing its name that it becomes the focus of reverence and awe. The totem animal is generally taboo to the members of the clan, but is sacrificed for certain ceremonial feasts and eaten sacramentally by all who belong to that totem group. This symbolises the establishment/renewal of a mystic kinship or blood relationship between the totem and the clan. The killing and eating of the totem animal also symbolises an appropriation of the power of the totem animal, hence it may be killed and eaten regularly for food. Related to the assumptions of the totemic relationship is the belief that human beings can change themselves into animals or have intimate relations with animals. Indeed, some animals are not eaten because they are believed to be, in reality, human beings who have been transformed into such animals. Among a number of tribes in India there is a belief that human beings transform themselves into tigers, wolves, bats and so forth, or have tabooed sexual relations with animals. 7. Omens and Divination : Living in uncertain relationships with spirits and natural and supernatural forces, members of the Primal Religious tradition are continually on the lookout for indications and warnings about what is likely to happen in their lives through esoteric signs or omens. However, belief in omens is by no means confined to members of this religious tradition. Omens are generally perceived immediately prior to any undertaking. To meet a squirrel or wildcat crossing one's path is a good omen for the Gonds. To hear, at the village boundary,

Sometimes a fetish is artificially produced by a shaman or person who possesses mana. The use of charms, amulets or talismans is not limited to the Primal Religious tradition. Artificial fetishes or charms for protection are commonly worn on the person, suspended from the roof of a building. Others may be tied to guns to make them shoot straight, or used to attract a lover. Generally speaking, however, natural fetishes, especially stones, are most commonly preferred by tribal people. A fetish is perceived much like a human being; possessing personality, feelings and will. It is usually hidden in a secret comer of the dwelling, often where the grain is kept. The potent fetish makes characteristic sounds, especially at night. In order to maintain its power the fetish gets special treatment, like oiling it with pork fat, or offering it sacrifices, such as a fowl. If the desired personal ends are not thus realized, the owner may resort to coaxing, or scolding. Finally, if all such methods fail, it is assumed that some more powerful spirit is interfering, or that the spirit or the mana has left the fetish. If the former, a shaman or magician is summoned to diagnose the problem and, if necessary, to charge the fetish with additional power. If the spirit or mana has departed, the person will look for another. At one level, the fetish is simply the agent of mana or a spirit. At another, it acts as an oracle, and is consulted in order to ascertain the mind of the agent inhabiting it. An oath taken in the name or upon a fetish is specially binding. However, the power of the fetish must be demonstrated in action. Thus, a fetish which has the reputation of being useful, receives corresponding due honour. A taboo object or person must not be touched, heard, smelled, or tasted because such contact will result in automatic supernatural adverse effects. The number of taboos is countless, extending into every area of human life. Taboos are not confined to the Primal Religious tradition; indeed are a 5. Taboo : Taboo (from a Polynesian dialect) is a caution or prohibition against fetishes or other manifestations of mana. offending gods or spirits, cutting sacred trees or destroying sacred groves, believed to be the abode of gods and spirits, and so forth. (b) Gender/sex taboos such as contact with women during menstruation and childbirth. Women are not permitted to enter sacred groves, touch the sacred drum or a plow, climb trees or use musical instruments. Among the Nagas, a couple committing incest is expelled from the village lest disaster befall the entire village. (c) Taboos related to persons such as chiefs and shamans/ priests who are believed to be charged with mana or able to control spirits. Not only their person, but their clothing, vessels and other personal objects which are used by ordinary mortals at the peril of their very lives. Warriors are taboo, specially immediately prior to going to fight, as are their weapons and vessels. While fighting or hunting, women are taboo for warriors and hunters lest they suffer defeat or even death. In many tribes, men will not take food from their wives or speak to them while fighting or universal religious phenomenon. Some examples are : (a) Taboos related to supernatural beings such as