Eternal India Encyclopedia

Eternal India encyclopedia

PHILOSOPHY

These 36 are divided into three groups : 1) the five pure principles Shiva tattva (the essence .of Shiva) is the first of these and is the cause of the rest - Shakti (power), Sadashiva (the eternal good), ishvara (lord) and Shuddvidya (true knowledge). 2) the seven mixed principles - maya, five sheaths (destiny, time, attachment, knowledge and power) and purusha or self. 3) 24 impure principles beginning with prakriti (this list is the same as that of Sankhya). Bonds are of three kinds: maya, Karma and avidya. The world and souls are real and emancipation requires the grace of Shiva. The Shaiva- Siddhanta rejected Shankara’s non-dualism and insisted on the preservation of the individuality of the finite soul even in the state of emancipation. The released souls continue to exist as souls. In contrast the idealistic and monistic school of Shaivism devel- oped in Kashmir and became known as Kashmir Shaivism. The individual soul of a person is identical with Shiva. Recognition of identity is essential to liberation. Kashmir Shaivism emphasised the importance of knowledge (jnana) as the means of release. The removal of this ignorance has to be worked through discipline carya (observance), kriya (rites) and yoga. It is knowledge that removes the sorrows of the soul. Based on the esoteric spiritual texts of the Tantras rather than the Vedas, Kashmir Shaivism produced a series of great teachers the most outstanding of whom was Abhinavagupta (10th century). (M.P.Y.K) JAINISM Jainism is fundamentally atheistic in that while not denying the existence of gods, it refuses them a place as “creators” in the universal scheme. The world functions according to universal law. It is not created, maintained or destroyed by a single deity. The universe is eternal, its existence is divided into an infinite number of cycles, each consisting of a period of improvement and decline. The world is now in a period of decline but it will be followed by a period of improve- ment, followed by decline and so on for all time. Jainism (divides the world into the realms of the inanimate, the non-soul non-living substance, ( ajiva) and the animate substance (jiva). The former comprises five categories, modes and substances — space ( akasha ), movement (dharma), rest ( adharma ), time (kala), and matter (pudgala). Matter (earth, water, fire and air) is composed of atoms (anu) which cannot be further broken down or divided. Shade and light, sounds and notes are also regarded as matter. To the realm of the animate (jiva) belongs the soul in its pure state (atman) and the soul in association with its body (samsari jiva). The terms atman and jiva both denote the same soul according as it exists in a pure state or in a condition of incarnation. All atmans are alike. They are eternal, endowed with consciousness, omniscient, free from sorrow and perfect. The jivas, because they exist in bodies, are different. The pure atman remains a jiva because of the deposit of matter, invisible to the eye, on the atman, in the same way as grains of dust settle on and cloud a bright, oily surface. The atman remains a jiva, a physical being subject to the cycle of rebirths ( Samsara ) ever- renewed suffering. Jainism regards as animate objects which other schools of thought regard as inanimate. Apart from human beings and animals, plants, stones, rocks, running water and many other natural objects are regarded as jivas.

Supreme Being as the cause of the Universe and as possessing various attributes gives to the Ramanuja school of Vedanta a theistic character. Ramanuja was not as brilliant a metaphysician as Shankara but his ideas spread all over India and gave rise to many theistic Vedan- tic devotional schools which helped to spread Hinduism. Shankara's philosophy though it afforded spiritual comfort to many did not satisfy those in every age who hunger for a God whom they can love and worship. Shankara's Brahman is too much of an abstraction to be the object of love and worship. Shankara's philoso- phy touches such dizzy heights of abstraction that it becomes dif- ficult, if not impossible, for most men to comprehend or to accept it. Ramanuja's God was a personal being who was full of love for his creation, unlike the impersonal world soul of Shankara. Ramanuja argues that the individual soul was one with God but yet separate and that the highest ideal and the ultimate goal is complete surrender to God. Therefore the system of Ramanuja is called Visistadvaita or qualified monism. After the death of Ramanuja his followers split into two schools: the Uttara-Kalarya (Northern School) and the Dakshina-Kalarya (Southern School). The theologians of the former school argued that some effort on the part of the believer was needed for salvation. The latter argued that God saves whom he wills with no effort on their part. Madhwa (1199-1278) attacked Shankara's theory of maya and based his philosophy of dualism ( dvaita ) on the idea of differences which are five in number: difference between God and individual souls, between soul and soul, between soul and non-living matter, between God and matter and between matter and matter. The world is real because it is perceived as such. The objects presented to our perception may be either subject to change or not subject to change and the fact that an object is fleeting and change- able does not mean that it is not real. Madhwa was also a Vaishnavite who declared that Vishnu has full power over both soul and matter. Only those who live pure and moral lives can be saved. Evil souls are predestined to eternal damnation while souls of mediocre quality will transmigrate eter- nally. The belief of Madhwa that only a few attain salvation while the rest cannot and some even suffer damnation is contrary to the teachings of all other Indian religious schools. Among the other theistic schools of Vedanta, there are the schools of Nimbarka (12th Century), Vallabha (15th Century) and Chaitanya (16th Century). Nimbarka's philosophy emphasised both identity and difference of the world and finite souls with Brahman. Vallabha's philosophy is called pure nondualism. He adopted Shankara's view with greater stress on the personal God and His grace. Chaitanya founded Vaishnavism in Bengal. His life was characterised by emotional fervour towards Sri Krishna, the incar- nation of Vishnu. All the schools were theistic and practised fervent devotion to God in the form of Lord Krishna. Among the theistic schools of philosophy, there are the realis- tic, dualistic, idealistic and monistic schools of Shaivism. The former, the Shaiva-Siddhanta school of Tamil Nadu, rejected Shank- ara's non-dualism: the world and souls are real and emancipation requires the grace of Shiva. The Shaiva-Siddhanta school recognises three categories ( padarthas ): God (Shiva), Soul (pashu ) and the bonds (Pasha); and the 36 principles ( tattvas) as against 25 of the Sankhya and Yoga.