Environment and Security: Transforming risks into cooperation

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Environment and Security

Endnotes

1. The ten thematic centres stopped operating with the cessation of the TACIS.

46296; “Caspian gas to run within Central Asia-Center corridor”, 11.05.2007, source Itar-Tass (www.itar-tass. com).

2. Quoted from the speech given by Professor Ole Dan- bolt Mjøs, Chairman of the Norwegian Nobel Commit- tee at the occasion of the 2007 Peace Prize; accessed at http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/ 2007/presentation-speech.html. 3. The next phase of implementation of the Caspian Environmental Programme in 2008-2011 will primarily focus on aquatic bioresources and fisheries, invasive species management, marine protected areas and spawning grounds, improving coastal communities livelihoods. 4. The original version of the new Kazak Ecological Code can be accessed at http://base.zakon.kz/doc/ lawyer/?uid=5CC242A5-B708-4A51-B52D-1BE3EC93 F26F&language=rus&doc_id=30085593&page=0.

13. “Russia seals Central Asian gas pipeline deal”, ac- cessed at http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/22345096.

14. The case of the BTC pipeline is rather controversial as the US$4 billion project may not be economically vi- able unless Kazakh oil can be added to the Azerbaijani oil transported by the pipeline (Ebel and Menon, 2000). The controversy stems from the fact that many think the project was politically motivated, some foreign policy- makers being keen to support east-west energy trans- port routes that bypass the territory of Iran and Russia. 15. The Memorandum was signed by the participant companies in the Tengiz-Chevroil consortium, those in the KCO consortium, and Kazakhstan’s national oil and gas company KazMunayGaz (Interfax, 24 January). 16. “Russia, Kazakhstan agree to double CPC through- put capacity”. RFE/RL NEWSLINE Vol. 12, No. 87, Part I, 9 May 2008. 17. On 26 July Turkey, Italy and Greece signed an inter- governmental agreement to build a US$1.36 billion natural gas pipeline that will connect Azerbaijan’s Shah Deniz gas field to Italy via Turkey and the Adriatic (Cor- riere Della Sera, 26 July). The Turkey-Greece-Italy (TGI) pipeline has a projected annual capacity of 11.5 billion cu m of natural gas. The pipeline should be completed in 2012. (Eurasia Daily Monitor, volume 4, issue 151 ac- cessed at http://www.jamestown.org/edm/article.php? article_id=2372345). 18. The European Union currently imports 45% of its oil from the Middle East and 40% of its gas from Russia (30% Algeria, 25% Norway). By 2030, the EU estimates that 90% of its oil consumption will have to be covered by imports, with over 60% of EU gas imports expected to come from Russia with overall external gas dependence expected to reach 80%. Source http://ec.europa.eu/external_relations/energy/ index.htm. 19. Turkey and Ukraine play such a role on the Western routes. See for example the articles published by Eura- sianet: Igor Torbakov, “Turkey stands to benefit from Caspian basin energy competition”, published on 17 February 2006. 20. For a detailed discussion on the issue of militariza- tion of the Caspian Sea see Katlik M. (2004), “Militarisa- tion of the Caspian Sea”, in Akiner, (2004).

5. The annual mean precipitation in the region is 150- 200 mm of rain.

6. Atyrau province: 390 000 people for 166 000 sq km; Mangystau province: 480 000 people for 119 000 sq km.

7. Sources: Great Soviet Encyclopaedia, Agency of the Republic of Kazakhstan on statistics.

8. 569 000 people as of 1 January 2006 with an increase of 15% on 2002.

9. Khan Imran, “Central Asia: Energy pipelines or eco- nomic lifelines?” Alexander Gas & Oil Connections, 11(1), January 12 2006; Knight Robin, “Is the Caspian an oil El Dorado? “Time Magazine, International edition, 151(26):28, 29 June 1998; Bruce Nelan, “Caspian black gold”, Time Magazine, International edition, 26(26), 29 June 1998. 10. In the 19th century the region was associated with the Nobel brothers, the Rothschilds, Henri Deterding of Royal Dutch, and Marcus Samuel of Shell who were in- volved in the start of the oil industry in the region. 11. By 1940 Baku was delivering over 70% of Soviet oil, continuing throughout World War II. As production in the onshore fields declined, offshore extraction was developed. Most of Azerbaijan’s oil is now extracted offshore.

12. “Modernization of the gas pipeline Central Asia – Centre”, source http://www.caspionet.kz/index.cfm?id=