Introduction to Psychology

Introduction to Psychology of 97 Types of Reasoning- Reasoning is one aspect of intelligent thinking. It helps us acquire knowledge, make sound decisions, solve problems, and avoid the hazards and time-consuming efforts of trial and error. • Deductive Reasoning- Reasoning from the top down, that is, from general principles to a conclusion about a specific case. When people reason deductively, they begin with a set of premises and determine what the premises imply about a specific situation. Deductive reasoning is the basis of formal mathematics and logic. • Inductive Reasoning- Reasoning from the bottom up, starting with specific facts and trying to develop a general principle. Inductive reasoning leads to likelihood rather than certainty. • Algorithmic- Formulas are precise sequences of procedures that automatically generate solutions. Mathematical formulas are algorithms and if used properly will always give the correct answer. • Heuristics- Are general problem-solving strategies, similar to mental rules of thumb that we apply to certain classes of situations. One common heuristic, means-ends analysis, involves identifying differences between the present situation and a desired goal, and making changes that reduce these differences. Another heuristic, subgoal analysis, involves formulating subgoals, or intermediate steps, toward a solution. Representativeness heuristic involves thinking about how closely something fits our prototype for that particular concept, or class, and therefore how likely it is to be a member of that class. • Dialectical Reasoning- Is reasoning which proceeds in the form of a dialogue, with one person making a statement and another making a response to it, which in its turn evokes a further response. Cognitive Biases- The ability to reason effectively is a key factor in critical thinking, making sound decisions, and solving problems. Unfortunately, several key factors may impair effective reasoning. Cognitive biases are tendencies to think in certain ways. Cognitive biases can lead to systematic deviations from a standard of rationality or good judgment, and are often studied in psychology and behavioral economics. Affect Heuristic-Is a mental shortcut that allows people to make decisions and solve problems quickly and efficiently, in which current emotion—fear, pleasure, surprise, etc.—influences decisions. In other words, it is a type of heuristic in which emotional response, or "affect" in psychological terms, plays a lead role. This subconscious process shortens the decision-making process and allows people to function without having to complete an extensive search for information. It is shorter in duration than a mood, occurring rapidly and involuntarily in response to a stimulus. Availability Heuristic- In which people base judgments and decisions on how easily information is available inmemory. The availability heuristic is a mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to mind. It operates on the notion that if something can be recalled, it must be important. © 2015 Achieve Page 53