Introduction to Psychology

Introduction to Psychology of 97 scales provide separate scores for crystallized and fluid intelligence and for analytical, practical, and creative intelligence. Achievement tests measure what has already been learned, whereas aptitude tests are assumed to measure potential for future learning and performance. Most intelligence tests measure combinations of achievement and aptitude. Three important standards for psychological tests are: reliability (consistency of measurement over time, within tests, and across scorers), validity (successful measurement of the construct and acceptable relations with relevant criterionmeasures), and standardization (development of norms and standard testing conditions). IQ scores successfully predict a range of academic, occupational, and life outcomes, including lifespan. Such findings indicate that intelligence tests measure important adaptational skills. Cultural Influences and Stereotype Threat- Intelligence is determined by interacting heredity and environmental factors. Genes account for between 50 and 70 percent of population variation in IQ. Shared family environment accounts for perhaps one-fourth to one-third of the variance during childhood, but its effects seem to dissipate as people age. Educational experiences also influence mental skills. Heredity establishes a reaction range with upper and lower limits for intellectual potential. Cultural and ethnic differences in intelligence exist but the relative contributions of genetic and environmental factors are still in question. Beliefs also influence group behavior. Group members can experience stereotype threat if they believe that certain behaviors on their part would confirm a negative stereotype in the minds of others. Cognitive Approaches- Cognitive process theories explore the specific information-processing and cognitive processes that underlie intellectual ability. • Triarchic Theory of Intelligence - Addresses both the psychological processes involved in intelligent behavior and the diverse forms that intelligence can take. • Metacognition- Are the higher-order processes used to plan and regulate task performance. They include problem-solving skills such as identifying problems, formulating hypotheses and strategies, testing them logically, and evaluating performance feedback. • Emotional Intelligence- Involves the abilities to read others’ emotions accurately, to respond to them appropriately, to motivate one, to be aware of one’s own emotions, and to regulate and control one’s own emotional response. Animal Intelligence- Animal cognition is the study of the mental capacities of animals. It has developed out of comparative psychology, including the study of animal conditioning and learning; but has also been strongly influenced by research in ethology, behavioral ecology, and evolutionary psychology. Beginning around 1960, a "cognitive revolution" in research on humans gradually spurred a similar transformation of research with animals. Inference to processes not directly observable became acceptable and then commonplace. An important proponent of this shift in thinking was Donald O. Hebb, who argued that "mind" is simply a name for processes in the head that © 2015 Achieve Page 55