Introduction to Psychology

Introduction to Psychology first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (inter-psychological) and then inside the child (intra-psychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual relationships between individuals." Sociocultural theory focuses, not only on how adults and peers influence individual learning, but also on how cultural beliefs and attitudes impact how instruction and learning take place. An important concept in sociocultural theory is known as the zone of proximal development. According to Vygotsky, the zone of proximal development "is the distance between the actual development level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers." Essentially, it includes all of the knowledge and skills that a person cannot yet understand or perform on their own, but is capable of learning with guidance. Vygotksy's theory is guided by six major assumptions: 1. Children develop through informal and formal conversations with adults. 2. The first few years of life are critical for development, as this is where thought and language become increasingly independent. 3. Complex mental activities begin as basic social activities. 4. Children can perform more difficult tasks with the help of a more advanced individual. 5. Tasks that are challenging promote cognitive development growth. 6. Play is important and allows children to stretch themselves cognitively. Erikson’s Stages of Development Erikson’s Stages of Development- Psychologist Erik Erikson believed that personality develops through confronting a series of eight psychosocial stages, each involving a different crisis over how we view ourselves in relation to other people and the world. Each crisis is present throughout life but takes on special importance during a particular age period. Four of these crises occur in infancy and childhood. 1. Basic Trust versus Basic Mistrust - This stage occurs in infancy during the first year. Depending on how well our needs are met and how much love we receive during the first year of life, we develop a basic trust or mistrust of the world. 2. Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt - This stage occurs in toddlerhood ages 1-2, when children begin to exercise their individuality. If parents unduly restrict children or make harsh toileting training demands, children develop shame and doubt about their abilities and later lack the courage to be independent. 3. Initiative versus Guilt - From age 3 through age 5, also known as early childhood, children display great curiosity about the world. If they are allowed freedom to explore,

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