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In response to this chaotic environment, Italy saw the rise of city-states in the Middle Ages. Urban centers such as Venice, Florence, and Milan were able to increase their wealth through trade. This led to greater independence from both the emperor and the pope, so that city-states could begin to govern them- selves. In time, the economic success and autonomy of these city-states, and the powerful families that controlled them, created conditions for the Ital- ian Renaissance to flourish. Families such as the Medici in Florence beginning in the late 1400s were able to support artists such as Leonardo da Vinci and

One of the most famous of all Renaissance artworks, Michelangelo’s The Creation of Adam , part of the Sistine Chapel in Vatican City.

Michelangelo, leading to triumphs in art, engineering, literature, and other fields that would redefine Western thought. The Renaissance was not to last, as the rising power of neighboring empires threatened the existence of the city-states. First the Spanish Empire ruled, fol- lowed by the Austrian and French empires. Fed up with the incompetence of foreign rule, Italian citizens began clamoring for independence. Charismatic lead- ers such as Giuseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi led the movement known as the Risorgimento (“resurgence”) in the mid-nineteenth century. With the cooperation of members of the monarchy, as well as aid from foreign armies, Garibaldi’s forces were able to drive out the lingering Austrian and Spanish pres- ence. In 1861, the new Kingdom of Italy was recognized as a unified nation-state. Further territories were added later in the decade. With the capture of Rome from

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CHAPTER ONE: HISTORY, RELIGION, AND TRADITION