Associate Magazine FBINAA Q1-2023

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no evidence that behavior in the field changed because of the training. 21

10 Roh, S., & Robinson, M. (2009). A Geographic Approach to Racial Profiling: The Microanalysis and Macroanalysis of Racial Disparity in Traffic Stops. Police Quarterly , 12(2), 137–169. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098611109332422; Epp, C., Maynard-Moody, S, and Haider-Markel, D. (2014). Pulled Over: How Police Stops Define Race and Citi zenship. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press; Nix, J., Pickett, J. T., Wolfe, S. E., & Campbell, B. A. (2017). Demeanor, Race, and Police Perceptions of Procedural Justice: Evidence from Two Randomized Experiments. JQ: Justice Quarterly , 34(7), 1154–1183. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2017.1334808 11 Roh, S., & Robinson, M. (2009). A Geographic Approach to Racial Profiling: The Microanalysis and Macroanalysis of Racial Disparity in Traffic Stops. Police Quarterly , 12(2), 137–169. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098611109332422; Epp, C., Maynard-Moody, S, and Haider-Markel, D. (2014). Pulled Over: How Police Stops Define Race and Citizenship. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. 12 Epp, C., Maynard-Moody, S, and Haider-Markel, D. (2014). Pulled Over: How Police Stops Define Race and Citizenship. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. 13 Johnson, R. (2004). Citizen expectations of police traffic stop be havior. Policing: An International Journal , 27(4), 487–497. https://doi. org/10.1108/13639510410566235; Renauer, B. & Covelli, E. (2011). Examining the rela tionship between police experiences and perceptions of police bias. Policing: An Inter national Journal , 34(3), 497–514. https://doi.org/10.1108/13639511111157537; Epp, C., Maynard-Moody, S, and Haider-Markel, D. (2014). Pulled Over: How Police Stops Define Race and Citizenship. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press; Nagin, D. S., & Telep, C. W. (2020). Procedural justice and legal compliance: A revisionist perspective. Criminology & Public Policy , 19(3), 761–786. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9133.12499 14 Nagin, D. S., & Telep, C. W. (2020). Procedural justice and legal compliance: A revisionist perspective. Criminology & Public Policy , 19(3), 761–786. https://doi. org/10.1111/1745-9133.12499 15 IBID, p. 762. 16 Murphy, K., Mazerolle, L., and Bennett, S. (2014). “Promoting Trust in Police: Findings from a Randomised Experimental Field Trial of Procedural Justice Policing.” Policing & Society 24(4) : 405–24. doi:10.1080/10439463.2013.862246 17 Williams, L., Kyle, J., Hegarty, T., Lockett, L., and Grube, J. (2019). The Arc of Procedural Justice in a U.S. Non-Metro Community: Traffic Stops and Policing in the Age of Disruption. Police Practice and Research 22(1) 657-677, https://doi.org/10.1080 /15614263.2019.1658580 18 Skogan, W., Craen, M., & Hennessy, C. (2015). Training police for procedural justice. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 11(3) , 319–334. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s11292-014-9223-6; Rosenbaum, D., & Lawrence, D. (2017). Teaching procedural justice and communication skills during police-community encounters: Results of a randomized control trial with police recruits. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 13(3) , 293–319. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-017-9293-3 19 Antrobus, E., Thompson, I., and Ariel, B. (2019). “Procedural Justice Training for Police Recruits: Results of a Randomized Controlled Trial.” Journal of Experimental Criminology 15(1) : 29–53. doi:10.1007/s11292-018-9331-9 20 Owens, E., Weisburd, D., Amendola, K. L., & Alpert, G. P. (2018). Can You Build a Better Cop? Criminology & Public Policy , 17(1), 41–87. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745 9133.12337 21 McLean, K., Wolfe, S. E., Rojek, J., Alpert, G. P., & Smith, M. R. (2020). Randomized controlled trial of social interaction police training. Criminology & Public Policy , 19(3), 805–832. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9133.12506 22 Weisburd, D., Telep, C., Vovak, H.,Zastrow, T., Braga, A., and Turchan, B. Reform ing the police through procedural justice training: A multicity randomized trial at crime hot spots. PNAS, 119 (14), p. 1. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2118780119 About the Author Tim Hegarty served with the Riley County (KS) Police Department for 26 years before retiring as a Division Commander. He also worked as an adjunct instructor in the De partment of Sociology, Anthropology, and Social Work at Kansas State University and as a subject matter expert and instructor for the Virginia Center for Policing Innova tion and for the Kansas Law Enforcement Leadership Academy. His efforts in promot ing evidence-based policing were recognized with the 2013 IACP/Sprint Bronze Award for Excellence in Police Research, and he is a member of the Evidence-Based Policing Hall of Fame at George Mason University’s Center for Evidence-Based Crime Policy. He is also a member of The American Society of Evidence-Based Policing and the Council on Criminal Justice, and he is an Executive Fellow with The National Police Foundation. Hegarty holds an MBA and a Master of Justice Administration degree, and he is a graduate of Session 238 of the FBI National Academy. 23 IBID 24 IBID 25 Epp, C., Maynard-Moody, S, and Haider-Markel, D. (2014). Pulled Over: How Police Stops Define Race and Citizenship. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, p. 6 26 IBID, p. 5.

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A randomized controlled trial published in early 2022 highlights the core of the challenge facing the procedural justice paradigm. The study began by asking the questions, “Can police be trained to treat people in fair and respectful ways, and if so, will this influence evaluations of the police and crime?” 22 Like other research cited here, the study showed that procedural justice training for officers produced positive outcomes: overall increases in displaying the four pillars of procedural justice, fewer arrests, and even reductions in crime. 23 What it did not show were positive increases in the attitudes of people living in the areas where these officers conducted their activity. 24 The authors suggest, as does this article, that researchers need to reconsider the limits of the procedural justice paradigm on citizen perceptions of legitimacy. CONCLUSION There is some slowly emerging evidence suggesting that procedural justice training can produce positive changes in officer behavior, though little evidence exists suggesting such changes are lasting. More importantly, there is little evidence suggesting that procedural justice training can translate into improved citizen perceptions of police legitimacy. These conclusions offer little support for investing further in the procedural justice paradigm to address racial bias claims arising from the non-traffic safety stop because these encounters clearly and convincingly affect Black motorists disproportionally, and as noted by Tom Tyler, the most influential researcher into procedural justice, “A procedure that consistently produces unfair outcomes will eventually be viewed as unfair itself.” 25 This is not meant to suggest that the police immediately limit themselves to only traffic-safety stops, nor is the conclusion here that the failure of the procedural justice paradigm in relation to non-traffic safety stops is the product of inherent bias in individual police officers. The critical takeaway is that disparities in non-traf fic safety stops have existed and continue to exist, and it does not matter whether they are based on bias or not. What matters is that they are perceived to be based on bias, and the procedural justice paradigm cannot “convert an otherwise offensive stop into a fair and legitimate one.” 26 The answer to this problem lies elsewhere, and it is the challenge for police practitioners and researchers to find it. References 1 Final Report of the President’s Task Force on 21st Century Policing. (2015). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Community Oriented Policing Services https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc948674/ 2 U.S. Congress, House, George Floyd Justice in Policing Act of 2021 , H.R. 7120, 116th Cong., 1st sess., introduced in House June 8, 2020, https://www.congress.gov/ bill/116th-congress/house-bill/7120 3 Casstevens, S. (2020, May 2020). Statement From IACP President Steven R. Casstevens. Blog/News Releases. https://www.theiacp.org/news/blog-post/statement from-iacp-president-steven-r-casstevens 4 Nagin, D. S., & Telep, C. W. (2020). Procedural justice and legal compliance: A revisionist perspective. Criminology & Public Policy , 19(3), 761–786. https://doi. org/10.1111/1745-9133.12499 5 Epp, C., Maynard-Moody, S, and Haider-Markel, D. (2014). Pulled Over: How Police Stops Define Race and Citizenship. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. 6 Nagin, D. S., & Telep, C. W. (2020). Procedural justice and legal compliance: A revisionist perspective. Criminology & Public Policy , 19(3), 761–786. https://doi. org/10.1111/1745-9133.12499 7 Epp, C., Maynard-Moody, S, and Haider-Markel, D. (2014). Pulled Over: How Police Stops Define Race and Citizenship. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

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