ACQ Vol 11 no 2 2009

has also been particularly neglected with this population (Koppenhaver & Yoder, 1992). Many individuals with complex communication needs have physical disabilities that prevent them from being able to write using a pencil, or type using a standard computer keyboard. Unfortunately, this has led to reduced opportunities to explore the alphabet and learn to compose written text. There are a number of alternative pencils available that can give these individuals access to the alphabet and the independence to write. These include low- tech options such as alphabet flip charts (see the Alternative Pencils developed by the Center for Literacy and Disability Studies, www.med.unc.edu/ahs/clds) as well as higher tech options like Intellikeys (IntelliTools). For many more ideas, strategies, and resources relating to supporting individuals with complex communication needs to engage in word study, guided reading, self-directed reading, and writing lessons, refer to Erickson and Koppenhaver (2007). Addressing individual needs The Whole-to-Part Model (Cunningham, 1993) is also a useful reference point for considering the role of the speech pathologist in supporting literacy development in individuals with complex communication needs (and other individuals with literacy learning difficulties). The model can be used to examine individuals’ profiles of ability and prioritise targets for instruction. Researchers at the Center for Literacy and Disability Studies employ an assessment process that relates to this model. It involves comparing performance across each of the constructs of the Whole-to-Part Model to determine the area of greatest need, and insuring that the area of greatest need receives the “greatest proportion of available time and intervention, and intervention is delivered by the most highly qualified personnel” (Erickson et al., 2006, p. 321). This process encourages professionals to consider word identification, language comprehension, and print processing as possible priorities for intervention. In addition to providing comprehensive instruction as part of the individual’s daily educational program, speech pathologists or other professionals target the areas of greatest need during direct intervention. If the area of greatest need is language comprehension, then that will be the target for intervention. In contrast, if the area of greatest need is word identification, then the focus of intervention will be on building decoding skills and automatic word identification. The team will determine which professionals are most capable of providing the type of intervention that the individual needs. This intervention approach holds much promise for promoting collaboration between team members. It uses individual profiles to divide the labour and capitalises on the relative strengths and qualifications of available professionals. It allows each professional to focus energy on a particular instructional approach or intervention, or on figuring out how to infuse a particular language or literacy goal into the existing curriculum. This is more effective and efficient than all professionals feeling they are responsible for learning all aspects of literacy instruction. The effectiveness of this approach is therefore highly dependent on regular communication between team members (Erickson et al., 2006; Erickson & Clendon, 2005). Targeting language and literacy simultaneously The Whole-to-Part Model (Cunningham, 1993) is also important because it supports the integration of language

had limited knowledge of phoneme–grapheme relationships and were unable to figure out unfamiliar words encountered when reading (Erickson, 2006). Various researchers (e.g., Cupples & Iacono, 2002; Hoogeveen, Smeets, & vand der Houven, 1987; Joseph & McCachran, 2003) have now demonstrated that this belief was unfounded and that if individual learning characteristics are taken into account, then these individuals can respond positively to analytic reading instruction. The overemphasis on sight word instruction for individuals with developmental disabilities has also meant that insufficient attention has been placed on other critically important constructs involved in the reading process. Research has clearly demonstrated that children who are at risk for literacy learning difficulties do not always have isolated word identification problems. Many children have problems with the other constructs in the Whole-to-Part Model, namely language comprehension and/or print processing. This finding holds true for children with and without developmental disabilities. In fact, as few as 14% of 2nd graders classified as poor readers have isolated word reading deficits (Catts, Fey, Zhang, & Tomblin, 1999), and even fewer children with autism have isolated word reading deficits (Nation, Clark, Wright, & Williams, 2006). Given the understanding that individuals with complex communication needs often have deficits in vocabulary knowledge (Bishop, Byers Brown, & Robson, 1990), morphosyntactic knowledge (Soto, 1997, 1999), and receptive language in general (Binger & Light, 2008), it is reasonable to expect that this population would also have a relatively low portion of poor readers who struggle exclusively with word reading. Comprehensive literacy instruction means that individuals with complex communication needs must have daily opportunities to build their skills across all the areas of the Whole-To-Part Model. This includes comprehensive word identification instruction that focuses on recognising words automatically (sight words) and strategies to decode unknown words. It also includes reading comprehension lessons that focus on developing background knowledge and schemata, expanding and enriching vocabulary, developing knowledge of text structure, and teaching metacognitive strategies (Staskowski & Creaghead, 2001). There must also be frequent opportunities for individuals to engage in self-directed reading where individuals can choose books and read for pleasure independently in order to build their print processing skills. A myriad of books and other print materials that represent a variety of different text genres should be readily available. Historically, this has been a challenge for individuals with complex communication needs as many have reading levels far below those expected for their chronological age. Finding books that are interesting and motivating to older readers has been a struggle. Thankfully, the increase in resources available on the Internet is helping to rectify this situation with a large number of books being made available electronically. An example of this is the new Tarheel Reader website (http://tarheelreader.org/) created by researchers at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill that provides a collection of free, easy-to- read, and accessible books on a wide range of topics. It is possible to make your own books or to browse through the large collection of books that other people have made. In addition to requiring frequent opportunities to read, individuals with complex communication needs must also have numerous opportunities to engage in writing for meaningful purposes. Writing instruction is an area that

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ACQ Volume 11, Number 2 2009

ACQ uiring knowledge in speech, language and hearing