ACQ Vol 11 no 2 2009

focused on the link between RAN and reading, with the RAN-spelling relationship receiving much less attention and being confounded by the use of non-word reading skills as an additional research variable (as opposed to non-word spelling). The authors believe that RAN reflects a capacity to accurately store a word’s orthographic information. In English, there is a higher percentage of inconsistency when writing down different forms of the same sound (i.e., the vowel sound in: new vs. shoe) than when pronouncing different forms of the same spelling (leaf vs. deaf), leaving many to conclude that spelling is in fact a more difficult task than reading. The experiment involved the use of regression analysis to investigate the extent in which different factors contribute to reading and spelling skills. Factors included: age, non-verbal abilities, phonological processing (non-word reading and spelling tasks), and the four RAN tasks (digit naming, letter naming, colour naming and object naming). The design of the experiment is unique in that it looks at the effect of the RAN tasks over and above phonological processing skills. A sample of 65 children (7–13 years) with reading and spelling difficulties were tested for this study. The research set out to answer the following questions: 1) is RAN a predictor of spelling abilities (when controlling for all other factors listed above), 2) is this relationship specific to alphanumeric RAN tasks (digit and letter naming), and 3) is RAN also a predictor of reading ability? Results showed strong correlations between performance on non-word reading and spelling tasks and performance on real word reading and spelling tasks. It was also found that spelling and reading ability was strongly correlated with alphanumeric RAN tasks, but not those involving the naming of objects or colours. Phonological processing skills (non-word reading and spelling) predicted a large amount of variance in both reading and spelling scores. After this was taken into account, the alphanumeric RAN tasks (digit and letter naming) still accounted for significant proportions of the variance in spelling scores, and the letter naming task was a modest predictor of reading ability. Non-word reading and spelling tasks can be used to test one’s ability to read and spell “exception” words. RAN can measure a child’s capacity to learn “exception” words by matching word-specific phonological labels to orthographic forms, rather than using general rules. The implications of this research include the need to consider rapid automatic naming as an assessment tool in your literacy test battery, and more importantly, to consider digit and letter naming as likely predictors of reading and spelling skills. In addition, investigating a child’s explicit decoding abilities through non- word tasks is also essential, given the strong association between phonological processing and literacy shown in this study. Exploring the links between problem behaviour and reading difficulties. McIntosh, K., Horner, R.H., Chard, D.J., Dickey, C.R., & Braun, D.H. (2008). Reading skills and function of problem behavior in typical school settings. Journal of Special Education , 42 (3), 131–147.

primary-school aged children. Drawing information from current research, the authors provide three hypotheses to explain the relationship between academic difficulties and behaviour problems. The first is that attention problems may cause problem behaviours as well as have a negative impact on learning. The second hypothesis is that problems behaviours often reduce access to educational instruction and disrupt learning. The third hypothesis concerns behavioural function and purports that a student’s low academic skills may lead to problem behaviour for the purpose of escaping academic tasks. The study examined the third hypothesis with research questions focusing on the function of problem behaviours. Fifty-one students in grades 4–6 participated in the study. All of the students had had two or more office discipline referrals (e.g., for showing disrespect, harassment, vandalism, lying, or fighting) during the school year. A functional behavior assessment (FBA) was conducted using the FBA Interview-Teacher (FIT) tool. A curriculum- based measure of reading was used to assess reading competency. The results revealed distinct groups of students. Those with problem behaviour with the function of maintaining peer attention had above average reading fluency scores and those students with problem behaviour with the function of escaping academic tasks had mean fluency scores well below the average range. The study had limitations in that the sample size was small and the results may not extend to populations that are significantly different from the study participants. The results of the study, however, have important clinical implications and support the evaluation of reading fluency and the use of the FBA as an effective and recommended assessment for use with students with chronic behaviour problems. It also highlights that intervention for problem behaviours needs to have different components based on the identified function of the problem behaviour. The neurobiology of reading and dyslexia. Shaywitz, S.E., & Shaywitz, B.A. (2008). Paying attention to reading: The neurobiology of reading and dyslexia. Development and Psychopathology , 20 (4), 1329–1349. Andrea Murray As reflected in the title, this article examines current theories and practices relating to reading and reading difficulties. It outlines the processes that take place during reading, explores the mechanisms necessary for the acquisition of reading skills, and examines the different definitions and theories of dyslexia. The paper also discusses the neurobiology of reading and dyslexia and explores the neurobiological commonalities that exist between attention difficulties and reading difficulties. The use of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) has provided consistent and replicable data on the location of the neural systems for reading. It has also enabled comparisons to be made between the neural systems of dyslexic readers and unimpaired readers with converging evidence now supporting what has been termed a “neural signature” for dyslexia. These findings have been consistent across cultures and demonstrate a disruption of the posterior neural systems serving reading. It has been widely established that in dyslexic readers there are disrupted posterior reading systems in the pariotemporal and occipitotemporal areas but that compensatory systems

Andrea Murray

The study described in this article aimed to explore the links between problem behaviour and reading difficulties in

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ACQ Volume 11, Number 2 2009

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