ACQ Vol 11 no 2 2009

variance and 25% of real word reading variance). The family history variable did not account for any variance above and beyond these measures. In conclusion this study suggest that due to the wide variability in language skill at age 2, language assessment at age 3 is more accurate in predicting later language and reading achievement. It also highlights the importance of monitoring the progress of children who present at the clinic with poor language skills in their early years, particularly those at risk for language learning impairment Investigating the relationship between behaviour problems and reading difficulties. Morgan, P., Farkas, G., Tuftis, P., & Sperling, R. (2008). Are reading and behaviour problems risk factors for each other? Journal of Learning Disabilities , 41 (5), 417–436. Mary Claessen This paper explores the relationship between behaviour problems and reading difficulties. Reading difficulties and behaviour problems frequently co-occur and there are a number of causal models which attempt to explain the relationship. These models try to explain whether there is a common underlying problem which results in both behaviour and reading difficulties, or whether difficulties in one cause the other (i.e., difficulties in behaviour resulting in less attention paid to important reading instruction, or reading difficulties resulting in frustration, and thus behaviour difficulties), or finally whether perhaps both reading and behaviour difficulties cause each other. One recent model suggests that deficits in executive functioning might lead to reading difficulties. Executive functions are self-regulatory processes and include skills such as selective attention, planning, inhibition, and organisation. This study explored whether children’s reading problems predicted later behaviour problems and also whether early behaviour problems predicted later reading difficulties. The study used a set of longitudinal date from a sample of 11,515 children. These children were assessed in kindergarten, first grade and third grade. For the current study, results from the following tests were analysed: “The Reading Test” which comprises a range of tasks to assess basic reading skills such as phonological awareness tasks, receptive vocabulary and text comprehension, as well as a “Teacher Social Rating Scale” which measures a child’s behaviour. After controlling for poor attention and socioeconomic demographics, poor reading ability in first grade was found to be a statistically and clinically significant predictor of problem behaviour in third grade. Conversely, when investigating whether behaviour difficulties in kindergarten predicted reading difficulties in third grade, it was found that only one behaviour difficulty (poor task engagement) increased the likelihood of a child being a poor reader in third grade. In contrast poor self-control, poor interpersonal skills and internalising problems did not predict poor reading. Task engagement may be considered to be proximally related to poor executive functioning as the child is unable to self-regulate goal-directed behaviour. And thus this study supports a restricted executive function model where poor self-regulation of behaviour constrains the child’s ability to learn within the demands of a classroom. Results of this study suggest the need for intervention which targets both reading and behaviour problems simultaneously.

Memory functioning in children with reading disabilities and/or ADHD. Kibby, M., & Cohen, M. (2008). Memory functioning in children with reading disabilities and/or attention deficit/ hyperactivity disorder: A clinical investigation of their working memory and long-term memory functioning. Child Neuropsychology , 14 , 525–546. Michelle Quail Past research has confirmed a link between specific learning disability in reading (RD) and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). This study aimed to investigate the specific area of memory breakdown in these populations. The authors hypothesised that children with RD would have poor verbal short-term memory, unimpaired visual short- term memory and no deficit in long-term memory (visual and verbal). Using Baddeley’s model of working memory (1986, 2000) they anticipated that these results would reflect a specific deficit in the phonological loop component of working memory. It was also thought that children with RD would show greater difficulties on short-term memory tasks when required to code for phonology as opposed to semantics. Children with ADHD were predicted to have age- appropriate phonological processing and long-term memory skills. However, the central executive (allowing skills such as problem-solving, mental flexibility, inhibition, motor control, self-regulation) was thought to be an area of weakness. This study involved the assessment of 113 children aged between 6 and 15 years. The groups consisted of children with RD, ADHD, comorbid RD and ADHD, and typically developing children. Subtests of the Children’s Memory Scale were used to assess the different memory components across the domains of verbal short- and long- term memory, visual short- and long-term memory, and attention/working memory. Children with RD were found to perform poorly on verbal memory tasks when coding by phonology (e.g., recalling numbers) but not when coding by semantics (e.g., recalling stories). This supports the hypothesis that children with RD have a specific deficit in the phonological loop component of working memory. Children with ADHD performed well on the majority of verbal short-term memory tasks and showed a mild deficit in visual short-term memory which was more apparent in children who were not on medication. Once general attention was accounted for, these children showed no deficit on tasks investigating central executive function. This contradicts the original hypothesis that this was a specific area of deficit in children with ADHD. The children with comorbid RD and ADHD showed deficits reflecting a combination of the results from the RD and ADHD groups with no additional difficulties. The clinical implications for children with RD include the need to relate verbal material to what is already known and to provide semantic context in order to reduce the need for phonetic coding. The use of repetition and supplementing verbal instruction with visual aids will support both clinical populations. For children with ADHD this will reduce the pressure on the central executive. Teaching of specific strategies to support working memory is also recommended. Rapid serial naming is a predictor of spelling ability. Savage, R., Pillay, V., & Melidona, S. (2008). Rapid serial naming is a unique predictor of spelling in children. Journal of Learning Disabilities , 41 (3), 235–250. Michelle Quail This study investigated rapid automatic naming (RAN) as a predictor of spelling abilities. Past research has mainly

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ACQ Volume 11, Number 2 2009

ACQ uiring knowledge in speech, language and hearing