978-1-4222-3430-3

galley Birth of the UN United Nations

The United Nations Leadership and Challenges in a Global World The Birth of the UN, Decolonization, and Building Strong Nations

The United Nations: Leadership and Challenges in a Global World

T i t l e L i s t

• The Birth of the UN, Decolonization, and Building Strong Nations

• The History, Structure, and Reach of the UN

• The UN Security Council and the Center of Power

• Humanitarian Relief and Lending a Hand

• International Security and Keeping the Peace

• International Law and Playing by the Rules

• Antiterrorism Policy and Fighting Fear

• Cultural Globalization and Celebrating Diversity

• Economic Globalization and the Worldwide Marketplace

• UNICEF, Human Rights, and Protecting Individuals

The United Nations Leadership and Challenges in a Global World

The Birth of the UN, Decolonization, and Building Strong Nations

Sheila Nelson

Series Advisor Bruce Russett

Mason Crest Publishers Philadelphia

The Birth of the UN, Decolonization, and Building Strong Nations by Sheila Nelson

Mason Crest Publishers Philadelphia Mason Crest Publishers Inc. 370 Reed Road Broomall, Pennsylvania 19008 (866) MCP-BOOK (toll free)

Copyright © 2015 by Mason Crest Publishers. All rights reserved. No part of this pub- lication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission from the publisher.

First printing 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ISBN 1-4255-0065-5 ISBN 1-4222-0066-3 (series)

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data TK

Design by Sherry Williams and Tilman Reitzle, Oxygen Design Group.

Contents

Introduction . 6 1. The Beginnings of the United Nations . 8 2. The Trusteeship System . 20 3. Non-Self-Governing Territories . 34 4. The International Decades for the Eradication of Colonialism. 50 5. Territories Helped by the Decolonization Process. 60 Time Line. 78 Further Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 Series Glossary . 81 Index . 83 Picture Credits. 87 Biographies. 88 Words to Understand: These words with their easy-to-understand definitions will increase the reader’s understanding of the text, while building vocabulary skills. Sidebars: This boxedmaterial within themain text allows readers to build knowledge, gain insights, explore possibilities, and broaden their perspectives by weaving together additional information to provide realistic and holistic perspectives. Research Projects: Readers are pointed toward areas of further inquiry connected to each chapter. Suggestions are provided for projects that encourage deeper research and analysis. Text-Dependent Questions: These questions send the reader back to the text for more careful attention to the evidence presented there. SeriesGlossary of KeyTerms: This back-of-the-book glossary contains terminology used throughout the series. Words found here increase the reader’s ability to read and comprehend higher-level books and articles in this field. KEY ICONS TO LOOK FOR:

Introduction by Dr. Bruce Russett

T he United Nations was founded in 1945 by the victors of WorldWar II. They hoped the new organization could learn from the mistakes of the League of Nations that followedWorldWar I—and prevent another war. The United Nations has not been able to bring worldwide peace; that would be an unrealistic hope. But it has contributed in important ways to the world’s experience of more than sixty years without a new world war. Despite its flaws, the United Nations has contributed to peace. Like any big organization, the United Nations is composed of many separate units with different jobs. These units make three different kinds of contributions. The most obvious to students in North America and other democracies are those that can have a direct and immediate impact for peace. Especially prominent is the Security Council, which is the only UN unit that can authorize the use of military force against countries and can require all UN members to cooperate in isolating an aggressor country’s economy. In the Security Council, each of the big powers—Britain, China, France, Russia, and the United States—can veto any proposed action. That’s because the founders of United Nations recognized that if the Council tried to take any military action against the strong opposition of a big power it would result in war. As a result, the United Nations was often sidelined during the Cold War era. Since the end of the Cold War in 1990, however, the Council has authorized many military actions, some directed against specific aggressors but most intended as more neutral peacekeeping efforts. Most of its peacekeeping efforts have been to end civil wars rather than wars between countries. Not all have succeeded, but many have. The United Nations Secretary-General also has had an important role in mediating some conflicts. UN units that promote trade and economic development make a different kind of contribution.Some help to establish free markets for greater prosperity, or like the UN Development Programme, provide economic and

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technical assistance to reduce poverty in poor countries.Some are especially concerned with environmental problems or health issues. For example, the World Health Organization and UNICEF deserve great credit for eliminating the deadly disease of smallpox from the world. Poor countries especially support the United Nations for this reason. Since many wars, within and between countries, stem from economic deprivation, these efforts make an important indirect contribution to peace. Still other units make a third contribution: they promote human rights. The High Commission for Refugees, for example, has worked to ease the distress of millions of refugees who have fled their countries to escape from war and political persecution.A special unit of the Secretary-General’s office has supervised and assisted free elections in more than ninety countries. It tries to establish stable and democratic governments in newly independent countries or in countries where the people have defeated a dictatorial government.Other units promote the rights of women, children, and religious and ethnic minorities. The General Assembly provides a useful setting for debate on these and other issues. These three kinds of action—to end violence, to reduce poverty, and to promote social and political justice—all make a contribution to peace. True peace requires all three, working together. The UN does not always succeed: like individuals, it makes mistakes . . . and it often learns from its mistakes. Despite the United Nations’ occasional stumbles, over the years it has grown and moved for-ward.These books will show you how.

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Introduction

Europe’s leaders met on HMS Prince of Wales in 1941 to discuss ways they could work together to prevent further wars.

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Chapter one

The Beginnings of the United Nations

As World War II raged in Europe and Asia, leaders of the Allied countries met often to talk about war strategies—and to figure out how to make sure a similar war never happened again. During these meetings, they decided to form an organization of nations, an organization that would work for peace and help the peoples of the world live better lives.The Allied leaders felt a large group of countries actively working to bring about peace and world development would be able to prevent future world wars and the spreading power of tyrannical dictators such as Adolf Hitler. Wo r d s t o U n d e r s ta n d decolonization : the act of granting a colony its independence. economic sanctions : coercive measures—such as refusing to import a nation’s products—adopted to force a nation violating international law to stop its actions. tyrannical : characterized by oppressive power. unanimous : relating to a situation in which all members agree. wielded : used something, especially power or authority.

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Chapter One

The Declaration by United Nations, an effort during World War II by the Allied powers to establish a unified front, was signed on January 1, 1942. It was one of the first usages of the term “united nations.”

In 1945, delegates from fifty countries met in San Francisco, California, and drew up a charter for the United Nations (UN). The Charter listed the purposes of the organization as: 1. To maintain international peace and security. 2. To develop friendly relationships among nations based on respect for the principle of equal rights and self-determination of peoples. 3. To achieve international cooperation in solving international problems. Representatives from fifty-one countries (the fifty who had met in San Francisco, plus Poland, who had not been able to attend the convention) signed the Charter, showing their approval and support. On October 24, 1945, the United Nations officially began its existence after the five permanent Security Council members—the United States, United Kingdom, USSR, France, and China—ratified its charter.

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THE CHARTER OF THE UNITED NATIONS We the Peoples of the United Nations determined to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, which twice in our lifetime has brought untold sorrow to mankind, and to reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person, in the equal rights of men and women and of nations large and small, and to establish conditions under which justice and respect for the obligations arising from treaties and other sources of international law can be maintained, and to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom, And for these Ends to practice tolerance and live together in peace with one another as good neighbours, and to unite our strength to maintain international peace and security, and to ensure, by the acceptance of principles and the institution of methods, that armed force shall not be used, save in the common interest, and to employ international machinery for the promotion of the economic and social advancement of all peoples, Have Resolved to Combine our Efforts to Accomplish these Aims Accordingly, our respectiveGovernments, through representatives assembled in the city of San Francisco, who have exhibited their full powers found to be in good and due form, have agreed to the present Charter of the United Nations and do hereby establish an international organization to be known as the United Nations.

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Chapter One

Delegates to the League of Nations at its first meeting on November 15, 1920, in Geneva, Switzerland.

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The League of Nations The United Nations was not the first international organization. AfterWorld War I, forty-two countries formed a similar group, called the League of Nations. The League of Nations had been the idea of American president WoodrowWilson,and its goals were very much like those of the later United Nations.The League wanted to prevent another war and make the world a better place for all people. Unfortunately, the League had a number of problems from its founding in 1919. One problem was that the United States never joined the orga- nization, preferring to focus on national interests, in spite of the fact the idea behind the League of Nations came from an American leader. With one of the major world powers missing, the League never had the power it could have wielded . Another problemwas that so many countries wanted to avoid war at any cost. Although this looked like a good thing, it meant that the countries of the League of Nations, such as the United Kingdom and France, preferred to give in to tyrants rather than enforce economic sanctions against, for example, the growing threat of Nazi Germany. Probably the most serious problem facing the League of Nations was that any decision made by the League Council had to be approved by all the members. Since the Council was made up of nine to fifteen mem- bers—at different times— unanimous decisions were nearly impossible, meaning very little was actually accomplished. World War II began in 1939, and the League of Nations had not been able to prevent it.The member countries knew the League had failed in its purpose, and the League Assembly and Council did not meet at all during the war.The United Nations replaced the League of Nations, carrying over many of the same goals and purposes. The new organization began its first official meetings in January of 1946, and the League of Nations was disbanded in April of the same year.

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Chapter One

The League of Nations was not able to prevent the destruction of World War II, including that of Warsaw in Poland, shown here.

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Decolonization The United Nations began with general goals of peace and international welfare, but it had specific goals as well. One of these specific objectives was decolonization . European countries had started planting colonies in the sixteenth century, shortly after they discovered the existence of the New World. This was the age of exploration; explorers traveled all over the world,charting oceans and continents. In the nineteenth century, European colonization increased, as the leaders of the Western world realized the amount of land unclaimed by other industrialized nations was shrinking quickly. Africa, especially, was affected, as European countries rushed to stake claims on the world. The developed countries wanted colonies because of the natural resources and wealth they could bring in to their mother country,and sometimes because they provided a distant land where prisoners could be banished—as was the case with Australia in its early years as a British colony. After World War I, some countries tried to get rid of some of their colonies. The war had been extremely expensive and was followed by the Great Depression. Countries such as the United Kingdom could no longer afford to support a vast empire. At the same time, many colonies were not ready to become independent. These colonies had been ruled by an outside power for so long they needed to be rebuilt from within to regain the tools needed to govern themselves. Universal Declaration of Human Rights One of the most important documents of the United Nations, apart from the Charter, is the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted in 1948, which established another specific goal of the UN. The Declaration is in- tended to guide the actions of the United Nations and its member coun- tries, giving an outline of the basic rights all humans have a right to expect. Although the Declaration is not part of international law, and therefore cannot legally be enforced, all member countries of the United Nations

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ELEANOR ROOSEVELT ’S ROLE Eleanor Roosevelt, the wife of U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt, played an important role in the drafting and adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. In fact, Mrs. Roosevelt, who was a U.S. delegate to the UN Commission on Human Rights, said it was her greatest achievement.

Eleanor Roosevelt displaying a copy of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

have agreed they will work toward the rights outlined in the Declaration. The countries administering Non-Self-Governing Territories also agreed to help work toward these rights in their colonies and territories—sometimes a large and difficult task.

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Chapter One

PREAMBLE OF THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS

Whereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world, Whereas disregard and contempt for human rights have resulted in barbarous acts which have outraged the conscience of mankind, and the advent of a world in which human beings shall enjoy freedom of speech and belief and freedom from fear and want has been proclaimed as the highest aspiration of the common people, Whereas it is essential, if man is not to be compelled to have recourse, as a last resort, to rebellion against tyranny and oppression, that human rights should be protected by the rule of law, Whereas it is essential to promote the development of friendly relations between nations, Whereas the peoples of the United Nations have in the Charter reaffirmed their faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person and in the equal rights of men and women and have determined to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom, Whereas Member States have pledged themselves to achieve, in co-operation with the United Nations, the promotion of universal respect for and observance of human rights and fundamental freedoms, Whereas a common understanding of these rights and freedoms is of the greatest importance for the full realization of this pledge, Now, therefore the General Assembly proclaims this Universal Declaration of Human Rights as a common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations, to the end that every individual and every organ of society, keeping this Declaration constantly in mind, shall strive by teaching and education to promote respect for these rights and freedoms and by progressive measures, national and international, to secure their universal and effective recognition and observance, both among the peoples of Member States themselves and among the peoples of territories under their jurisdiction.

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Chapter one

Text Dependent Questions 1. Explain how the ineffectiveness of the League of Nations helped lead the way to World War II. 2. How did the Great Depression impact colonial nations? 3. What is the purpose of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights? Research Projects 1. Research one of the colonial powers of the nineteenth and twentieth century and create a map showing which territory or territories they controlled. 2. Imagine you are on the Special Committee for Decolonization. Choose a Territory on the Non-Self- Governing Territories list. Research that Territory and make a list of specific recommendations to help it become self-governing.

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Chapter One

The Allied leaders, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt, and Soviet Union leader Joseph Stalin, at the Yalta Conference in February 1945, near the end of World War II.

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Chapter Two

The Trusteeship System

After World War II, the Allies had to make many decisions about the countries that had lost the war, such as Germany. One of these decisions involved the colonies of the conquered nations. What should be done with these colonies? Who should look out for their interests until they were ready to become independent?

Wo r d s t o U n d e r s ta n d

Allies : the group of powers that fought against Germany in World War I or against the Axis powers in World War II. Axis : the military and political alliance of Germany, Italy, and Japan that fought the Allies in World War II. Mandates : in this context, territories for which the League of Nations members were given administrative powers.

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Chapter Two

Trusteeship Council At its creation, the United Nations designed a trusteeship system to look after the colonies of the Axis powers—called Trust Territories—and dedicated an entire chapter of the Charter to describing the goals and duties of the system. The Trusteeship Council would oversee the system and would be one of the six main organs of the United Nations. (The others were the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and

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The San Francisco Conference met in 1945 to finalize the UN charter. In this picture, representatives from countries known as the “Big Three”—the United Kingdom, Russia, and the United States— discuss details.

Social Council, the Secretariat, and the International Court of Justice.) The purpose of the Trusteeship Council was to guide the Trust Territories toward self-government. Ideally, this purpose would be quickly fulfilled and the Council would no longer be needed. The members of the Trusteeship Council are the same as the five permanent members of the Security Council—although the individual representatives are different people. These members are China, France, the Russian Federation, the United Kingdom, and the United States.

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Chapter Two

The atomic bombs that U.S. forces dropped on Japan during World War II brought the specter of atomic warfare to the world’s attention and helped make the peacekeeping mission of the United Nations its most pressing concern. Shown here is the complete devastation wrought by the bomb dropped on Hiroshima, which was soon followed by the same in Nagasaki.

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Delegates from the “Big Five”—China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States— at a meeting on June 10, 1945, during the San Francisco Conference held to launch the United Nations.

League of Nations Mandates Just as the United Nations dealt with the issue of what to do with the colonies of their conquered enemies, the League of Nations had faced the same dilemma after World War I. While the United Nations had Trust Territories, the League of Nations had Mandates . These Mandates were divided into three groups, based on how ready for self-government the League of Nations believed them to be. Class A Mandates were nearly ready to become independent, and, in fact, all the

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Class A Mandates had become self-governing by 1949. Class B Mandates were not quite as well developed, and the mandatory powers—the equivalent of the administering powers, or countries, of the Trusteeship Council under the UN—had more control over these areas. The mandatory powers had the greatest control over Class C Mandates, and these Mandates essentially became colonies of the mandatory powers. However, in all cases, the mandatory powers were not allowed to build military fortifications or gather armies on the Mandates. When the League of Nations disbanded, it turned over control of its Mandates to the United Nations.The Mandates then became Trust Territories under the Trusteeship Council, with the goal of helping them all become self-governing.

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Chapter Two

LEAGUE OF NATIONS MANDATES AND THEIR MANDATORY POWERS

Class A Mandates Syria (France) Lebanon (France) Iraq (United Kingdom)

Palestine (United Kingdom) Transjordan (United Kingdom) Class B Mandates Ruanda-Urundi (Belgium)

Togoland (part France, part United Kingdom) Cameroons (part France, part United Kingdom) Tanganyika (United Kingdom) Class C Mandates South West Africa (South Africa) German Samoa (New Zealand) New Guinea (Australia) Nauru (Australia) German Islands in North Pacific (Japan)

The Trust Territories Many of the eleven Trust Territories were former League of Nations Mandates.Each faced unique situations,but the Trusteeship Council and the administering powers worked with the Trust Territories to help them gain self- government. This could mean independence, or it could mean the people of the Territory chose to become part of another country or to become a territory of another country. By the late 1960s,most of the Trust Territories had become independent. The last Trust Territory to gain self-government was Palau, part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands and administered by the United States. Palau became self-governing in 1994 by choosing to be a territory of the United States. When Palau gained self-government, the work of the Trusteeship Council was completed.

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The fishing people of Cameroon gained their

independence from France in 1960, thanks in part to the decolonization efforts of the United Nations.

TRUST TERRITORIES The Trust Territories, their administering powers, and the date and details of their gaining self-government are shown here. Cameroons (France) 1960—independence as Cameroon Cameroons (United Kingdom) 1961—Northern part joined Nigeria, Southern part joined Cameroon Nauru (Australia) 1968—independence as Nauru New Guinea (Australia) 1975—joined the Non-Self-Governing Territory of Papua to become the independent state of Papua New Guinea Ruanda-Urundi (Belgium) 1962—divided into the independent states of Rwanda and Burundi Somaliland (Italy) 1960—joined the Non-Self-Governing Territory of British Somaliland to become the independent state of Somalia Tanganyika (United Kingdom) 1961—independence as Tanganyika (in 1964, joined Zanzibar to become Tanzania) Togoland (France) 1960—independence as Togo Togoland (United Kingdom) 1957—joined the Non-Self-Governing Territory of the Gold Coast to become the independent state of Ghana Trust Territories of the Pacific Islands (United States) Federated States of Micronesia 1990—self-governing in free association with the United States Republic of the Marshall Islands 1990—self-governing in free association with the United States Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands 1990—self-governing as Commonwealth of the United States Palau 1994—self-governing in free association with the United States

Although Palau has its own flag, it is still a territory of the United States.

The Future of the Trusteeship Council On November 1, 1994, the Trusteeship Council had its last meeting. Palau had become self-governing a month before, and the Council’s job was done. Although the regulations of the Trusteeship Council stated they must meet at least once a year,the Council decided to change this rule and meet only if necessary. Although the Trusteeship Council no longer has a job to do,it cannot be completely disbanded without changing the Charter of the United Nations. Also, different people and groups have different ideas about how to deal with the Trusteeship Council.One committee recommended that the Trust- eeship Council should take over administration of those areas belonging to no one nation, such as Antarctica, the oceans, the atmosphere, and outer space.On the other hand,UN Secretary General Kofi Annan stated in March of 2005 that he would like to make large changes to the entire struc- ture of the United Nations. One of these would be to eliminate the Trustee- ship Council completely.To do so, the UN would have to amend its charter, which has been a sticking point blocking the elimination of the council.

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Chapter Two

This poster from 1983 shows the Preamble to the Charter of the United Nations.

While some people question the effectiveness of the United Nations, the success of the Trusteeship Council is proof that the United Nations has succeeded in at least one area. The Trusteeship Council was given eleven Trust Territories to administer and help to achieve self-government, and it met this goal in 1994 with the decision of the Palau people to become self-governing. Although the Trusteeship Council has finished the job it was given, and all the Trust Territories are now self-governing, sixteen Non-Self-Governing Territories are still working toward independence.

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Chapter Two

Text Dependent Questions 1. How did the United Nations decide to look after the colonies of the former Axis powers after World War II? 2. Explain each of the three different League of Nation Mandates. 3. Which countries make up the Trustee Council? What else do they have in common?

Research Projects

1. Research and write a report on the struggles to become self-governing experienced by one of the UN Trust Territories. 2. Research and create a timeline showing important dates in the political history of one of the Trust Territories.

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Chapter Two

The famous Flowerpot Rocks of Pago Pago in American Samoa, a Non-Self-Governing Territory in the Pacific Ocean.

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Chapter Three

The Non-Self-Governing Territories When the United Nations was founded in 1945, most of Africa, parts of Southeast Asia, and many Pacific Islands fell under the category of Non-Self-Governing Territories (NSGTs). By 2005, over eighty of these Territories had become self-governing. In 2014, there were sixteen NSGTs. According to the UN Web site,“In 1945, 750 million people— almost a third of the world’s population—lived in Territories that were non-self-governing, dependent on colonial powers. Today, fewer than 2 million people live in such Territories.” Wo r d s t o U n d e r s ta n d controversial : having to do with sharply opposing views. factions : smaller groups within larger groups that have opposing ideas. referendum : a vote of the entire electorate on a question or questions put before it by the government or similar body.

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Chapter Three

The flags lining the entrance to the UN headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland, exhibit how much UN membership has grown since its inception in 1945.

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Declaration on the Granting of Independence By 1960, UN membership had grown from the fifty-one founding members to nearly one hundred members. Many of these new members were countries that had gained their independence in the previous fifteen years. Despite the success of the UN’s decolonization policies, many countries felt the organization was working too slowly.Dozens of territories were still not self-governing and needed support to achieve independence. The UN General Assembly discussed the issue of decolonization and decided to put an effort into making it a higher priority. On December 14, 1960, it issued the “Declaration on the granting of independence to colo- nial countries and peoples,” also known as Resolution 1514.This declaration affirmed the right of all peoples to independence,including political freedom to help determine how they are governed. Also included in the declaration was a section stating that the United Nations was opposed to violent means of bringing about self-government. This was a serious problem in a number of Non-Self-Governing Territories, as several groups would sometimes fight for control of the region and the residents of the territory would become the innocent victims of this battle for power. The goal of the United Nations was to usher in political independence by peaceful means. FROM RESOLUTION 1514 ON GRANTING INDEPENDENCE TO COLONIAL PEOPLES Immediate steps shall be taken, in Trust and Non-Self-Governing Territories or all other territories which have not yet attained inde- pendence, to transfer all powers to the peoples of those territories, without any conditions or reservations, in accordance with their freely expressed will and desire, without any distinction as to race, creed or colour, in order to enable them to enjoy complete indepen- dence and freedom.

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Options for Non-Self-Governing Territories The day after the General Assembly issued Resolution 1514, it announced another resolution—Resolution 1541. The “Declaration on the granting of independence to colonial countries and peoples”had asserted the rights of all peoples to self-government and confirmed that the United Nations was to help bring about this independence for all Non-Self-Governing Territories. Now, Resolution 1541 gave three options for Non-Self-Governing Territories to gain independence. Such a territory could become self-governing by: 1. becoming an independent country, 2. choosing to link itself with another independent country, or 3. choosing to become a part of another independent country. Whatever the people of a Non-Self-Governing Territory chose, the impor- tant thing was that it was their decision,not one forced on them by violence or fear.Sometimes the people chose for their territory to become associated with another country,with the option of becoming an independent country in the future.

NON-SELF-GOVERNING TERRITORIES, AS OF 2014

Africa

Europe

Western Sahara* Atlantic and Caribbean

Gibraltar Pacific and Indian Oceans

Anguilla Bermuda British Virgin Islands Cayman Islands Falkland Islands (Malvinas) Montserrat St. Helena Turks and Caicos Islands United States Virgin Islands

American Samoa French Polynesia Guam New Caledonia Pitcairn Islands Tokelau

*Spain gave up its presence in 1976, but the process of decolonization by the people has not been completed.

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The island of Guam in the western Pacific Ocean is a Non-Self-Governing Territory of the United States.

The Process of Becoming Independent Every Non-Self-Governing Territory is administered by another country. For a territory to reach the point at which it is ready to become self- governing, it needs the full support of the administering nation.The exact process of becoming self-governing is different for each territory, since each faces a unique set of circumstances. Each case has to be examined individually to develop a plan with steps leading to self-government.

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Chapter Three

The small island of Gibraltar near the Iberian Peninsula is a Non-Self-Governing Territory of the United Kingdom.

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The Turks and Caicos, an island nation south of the Bahamas in the Caribbean Sea, is also a Non-Self-Governing Territory of the United Kingdom.

One of the most important concerns to be dealt with before a terri- tory can become self-governing is violence and oppression. If, for exam- ple, two factions are fighting for control of a territory, the people will not feel safe enough to make necessary steps toward self-government. When they are being terrorized, they are not free to make decisions about their future. Political candidates might face the threat of assassination, and resi- dents could be intimidated into voting a certain way. In this case, the fact that the territory held an election would not necessarily mean the will of the people had been done. Resolution 1514 states,“All armed action or repressive measures of all kinds directed against dependent peoples shall cease in order to enable them to exercise peacefully and freely their right to complete independence, and the integrity of their national territory shall be respected.”

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Chapter Three

The United Nations Emergency Force helped to keep the peace as territories became independent.

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Bermuda is a Non-Self-Governing Territory of the United Kingdom; it is located in the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of the southeastern United States.

Of course, a territory does not have to be perfect and have solved all its problems before it can become self-governing; all countries have complex issues they must deal with. In fact, the declaration also says that “inadequacy of political, economic, social or educational preparedness should never serve as a pretext for delaying independence.” This means that the administering nation should not try to keep control of the Non- Self-Governing Territory by using its poverty, for example, as an excuse.

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The Special Committee on Decolonization The people who work the hardest at trying to help Non-Self-Governing Territories become independent are those on the UN Special Committee on Decolonization. The United Nations created the Special Committee to assist Non-Self-Governing Territories in their quest for independence. The Special Committee is sometimes called the Committee of 24 because it has twenty-four members. The job of the Special Committee is to study each Non-Self-Governing Territory and to write reports outlining the unique circumstances facing each territory. Then the Special Committee makes

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Chapter Three

specific recommendations about steps to be taken to move each territory closer to independence. The Special Committee is also responsible for distributing information about decolonization, both to the people of administering nations and to those in Non-Self-Governing Territories. When the people in Non- Self-Governing Territories learn about the United Nations, its Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and Resolution 1514, they are more likely to begin wanting self-government and work toward it themselves. Non-Self-Governing Territories Today The United Nations keeps a list of all Non-Self-Governing Territories. As of 2014, sixteen territories were on the list. Most of them are small islands in the Pacific Ocean or the Caribbean.The United Nation’s goal is to have no territories on the list at all, with all the current territories having become self-governing. Some people feel the list is controversial , because of which territories are on the list and which ones are left off. For example, several areas not on the list, such as Québec and Hawaii, have independence movements, and some believe they should be included on the list for this reason. CONTROVERSY IN THE AMERICAS Two independence movements can be found right in North America— in the Canadian province of Québec and in the U.S. state of Hawaii. Many French Canadians living in Québec have for decades wanted to secede from Canada. At first, they were motivated by economic considerations and later by cultural and linguistic differences. Sometimes, the movement has turned violent. In October, 1970, members of the the Front de Libération du Québec (Quebec Liberation Front) kidnapped and murdered two government officials. The secessionist movement in Hawaii was given a boost in 1993, when Congress apologized for overthrowing the Kingdom of Hawaii in 1893 and turning it into a territory of the United States.

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A typical setting in Hawaii, the U.S. state made up of several islands in the Pacific Ocean. In 1993 U.S. Congress apologized for the takeover of Hawaii in 1893, giving native Hawaiians a boost to their secessionist movement.

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Others think the U.S.Virgin Islands should not be included on the list, since the United States has tried to move the islands toward self-determination. A referendum was held in 1993 to give the residents a chance to decide their political future, but since only 31.4 percent of eligible voters turned out, the referendum was invalid. Some feel that since the United States tried to organize a referendum, the lack of interest by the Virgin Islanders should serve as an indication that they would like to remain a territory of the United States. Although dozens of Non-Self-Governing Territories had gained inde- pendence with the help of the United Nations, by the 1980s, the process of decolonization had slowed down.The Special Committee on Decolonization decided they needed to rekindle interest in helping Non-Self-Governing Territories achieve self-determination.

One of the challenges of a territory hoping to become self-governing is fighting poverty and grappling with other economic and social issues.

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Chapter Three

Text Dependent Questions 1. How many people lived in Non-Self Governing Territories in 1945? 2. What did UN Resolution 1514 accomplish? 3. Outline the options for independence that UN Resolution 1541 gave NSGTs. Research Projects 1. Hold a debate on the U.S.Virgin Islands, with one side taking the part of the United States as an administering nation and the other the part of the government of the U.S. Virgin Islands as a Non-Self-Governing Territory. Debate the pros and cons of independence versus remaining a part of the administering nation. 2. Research why one of the NSGTs may want to become independent and compare it to the reasons why America wanted to gain its independence from Britain in the 1770s. Are there any differences? Are there any similarities? Create a table showing each.

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A map of the world surrounded by two olive tree branches makes up the official emblem of the United Nations, seen here on its flag.

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Chapter Four

The International Decades for the Eradication of Colonialism In the late 1980s, the Special Committee on Decolonization decided something must be done to encourage the continuing process of helping Non-Self-GoverningTerritories become independent. Although many former colonies either had become independent nations—and members of the United Nations—or had freely chosen to associate themselveswithother countries,theprocess had stalled.Progress toward self-determination in the remaining Non-Self-Governing Territories had slowed dramatically, with little being done by the administering powers to help the territories work toward independence.The Special Committee suggested that a renewed emphasis on self-determination for all peoples would help reenergize the process. Wo r d s t o U n d e r s ta n d eradication : complete elimination of something so that it cannot recur or return. implement : to put something into action. referendum : vote on an issue.

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The International Decade for the Eradication of Colonialism

In 1988, the UN General Assembly proposed that the years between 1990 and 2000 be known as the International Decade for the Eradication of Colonialism.The goal of the decade would be “ushering in the twenty-first century, a world free from colonialism.” Ideally, the United Nations wanted no territories remaining on the Non-Self-Governing Territories list by the end of the twentieth century. To fulfill this goal, the United Nations, and especially the Special Com- mittee, would have to work hard. Several things were needed to meet their objective.An essential part of ending colonialism was the cooperation of the administering powers. For territories to become self-governing, they needed the ongoing help and support of the countries governing them. Another important part of the process of self-determination was making sure the people of the territories had all the information they would need to make informed decisions. Since every territory faced a different situation, stud- ies also needed to be done on detailing specific actions that needed to be taken to move each territory closer to self-determination.

PROGRESS IN THE FIRST INTERNATIONAL DECADE FOR THE ERADICATION OF COLONIALISM Namibia (formerly known as South West Africa): 1990

Federated States of Micronesia: 1990 Republic of the Marshall Islands: 1990 Northern Mariana Islands: 1990 Palau: 1994

The last four listed here had been a part of the Pacific Islands Trust Territory, administered by the United States. This was the final Trust Territory to achieve self-determination.

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The Tropic of Capricorn crosses Namibia in Africa, which gained independence in 1990, at the beginning of the first International Decade for the Eradication of Colonialism.

Regional Seminars One of the most obvious steps taken during the International Decade for the Eradication of Colonialism was the beginning of the regional seminars. Each year in May, seminars are held in either the Caribbean or the Pacific, alternating each year. Members of the Special Committee attend the seminars, as do delegates from the Non-Self-Governing Territories and the administrating countries. Representatives from other UN member countries and agencies often attend these seminars as well. The regional seminars offer an opportunity for the Non-Self-Governing Territories to each make presentations detailing the situations in their territories. Possible solutions and steps can be put forward and debated at the seminars. With the information gathered at these yearly meetings, precise action plans can be created, giving steps to be taken in each territory to move it closer to self-determination.

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The United Nations General Assembly in session.

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Results of the International Decade for the Eradication of Colonialism As the 1990s drew to a close, it became clear the United Nation’s goal of ending colonialism by the end of the millennium would not be achieved. Five territories had achieved self-determination, but this still left seventeen on the Non-Self-Governing Territories list. The Special Committee felt they had made a great deal of progress in helping the territories and their administrating nations take the necessary steps toward self-government, but obviously much more work still needed to be done. One of the difficulties the Special Committee had encountered was getting the full cooperation of the administering nations. Some administrating nations insisted certain territories were happy remaining as colonies. This was true to some extent, since the tiny island territories appear to have greater economic advantages by staying as they are rather than choosing independence. As territories governed by wealthy administering nations, they have access to greater resources than they would if they were to try to survive on their own. This is especially true in the Caribbean. Many residents of these islands are comfortable with their lives and see no reason to change. One such example is the U.S. Virgin Islands, where several referendums have been held to determine the wishes of the people for the future of their territory. All of these referendums have failed, since very few people turned out to vote.

The national flag of Timor Leste.

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An aerial view of some of the tiny islands in the Caribbean Sea. The rights of small island nations in all oceans and seas of the world have not always been taken seriously by colonial powers.

Second and Third International Decades for the Eradication of Colonialism In 1999, the UN General Assembly admitted they would not be able to eradicate colonialism by the twenty-first century as they had hoped. They proposed a Second International Decade for the Eradication of Colonialism, this one from 2001 to 2010, during which there was some success. In 2002, the Territory of East Timor, administered by Portugal, became independent as the country of Timor Leste.This was a great victory for the United Nations, since many UN agencies worked together to bring about this independence.

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In 2004, the Pacific island of Tokelau, administered by New Zealand, chose to become freely associated with New Zealand as an Associated State. And in 2007, the people of Tokelau voted to remain a territory of New Zealand by only 16 votes. More than 64 percent of voters wanted their tiny islands to be self-governing in free association with New Zealand. If, and when, Tokelau comes off the Non-Self-Governing Territories list, fifteen territories will remain. The Special Committee had been working hard to remove from the list as many of these territories as possible before the end of the Second International Decade for the Eradication of Colonialism in 2010. The cir- cumstances facing each of these territories were unique, the challenges were great, which explains why independence for these territories has yet to pass. However, the United Nations is not giving up and the Special Committee is still hard at work. Hoping that more progress can be made, the UN has been holding regional seminars on the issue, and in 2011, set up the Third International Decade for the Eradication of Colonialism. The resolution was passed on December 10, 2010. WAR ON TERROR AND SELF-DETERMINATION While the 2001 terrorist attacks against New York City and Washington, D.C., had no direct effect on the granting of independence to NSGTs, a shift in international focus occurred in the aftermath of the attacks, and the United States, Great Britain, and other allies began what is called a “war on terror.” A new heightened concern about cross-border security, the funding of terrorists, and the like took hold. In fact, some analysts feel that the United States has became less interesting in promoting and protecting human rights, such as that of self-determination, as the country turned its attention to protecting borders and people from terrorist attacks.

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Chapter Four

Text Dependent Questions 1. Why are so many island nations hesitant about seeking and gaining independence? 2. When is the Third International Decade for the

Eradication of Colonialism set to end? 3. When did Palau become independent?

Research Projects Imagine you are on the Special Committee for

Decolonization. Choose a Territory on the Non-Self- Governing Territories list. Research that Territory and make a list of specific recommendations to help this Territory become self-governing.

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These riverfront buildings in New York City have served as the headquarters of the United Nations since 1952.

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Chapter Five

Territories Helped by the Decolonization Process Each territory that has achieved self-determination with the help of the United Nations has its own story. For some, a simple vote might have been all that was needed after the people of the territory received enough information to make an educated decision. Others faced war and years of hardships before they were ready to choose their own future. activist : a person who engages in direct action, especially in support of one side of a controversial issue. archipelago : a group or chain of islands. guerrilla : describing a type of warfare conducted by independent units using harassment and sabotage. Marxist : someone who follows the political and economic theory of Karl Marx, who saw class struggle as the force behind change in Western society. proxy : a stand-in for a person, entity, or country. Wo r d s t o U n d e r s ta n d

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Chapter Five

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