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The African continent has struggled with political instability
and conflict in recent history. Such instability encourages crim-
inal activity including wildlife trafficking, poaching and other
environmental crimes (Bouché
et al.
2012; Chase and Beyers
et al.
2011; Griffin 2011). While there are few big conflicts in
Southern Africa today, civil unrest and sporadic fighting contin-
ues in the Congo Basin, including in the Democratic Republic
of Congo (DRC), the Central African Republic (CAR), as well
as in Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia and across many countries in
Central and West Africa. These conflicts have an impact on el-
ephant populations because of the potential profit to be made
on ivory sales to domestic and foreign buyers.
In the past decade, INTERPOL, the United Nations Office for
Drugs and Crime, and the United Nations Environment Pro-
gramme have all warned against the rise in organized transna-
tional environmental crime. More sophisticated ways of illegally
extracting resources as well as more advanced methods of laun-
dering both illegally extracted resources and the proceeds from the
illegal trade have been observed. Furthermore, the violence, mur-
der and corruption associated with criminal cartels undermine
both human and state security. Environmental crime is particu-
larly attractive to these groups when compared with other forms
of criminal activity because of its high profit margin coupled with
a low probability of being caught and convicted due to the fact that
transnational law-enforcement in this sector is virtually non-exist-
ent (UNODC 2011; UNEP-INTERPOL 2012).
Transnational organized environmental crime involves primar-
ily five key areas:
1. Illegal logging and deforestation;
2. Illegal fisheries;
3. Illegal mining and trade in minerals, including conflict
diamonds;
4. Illegal dumping and trade in hazardous and toxic waste; and
5. Illegal trade and poaching of wildlife and plants.
The illegal trade and poaching of wildlife and plants alone is esti-
mated to be worth USD 5–20 billion annually, and this money is
often used to help finance conflicts (Wyler and Sheik 2008; GFI
2011; OECD 2012). During the Nepalese civil war (1996–2006),
more than half of the rhinoceros population living in Bardia Na-
tional Park was killed by Maoists to finance the conflict (Martin
et
al.
2009). During the independence conflicts that took place be-
tween 1960 and 1990 in the former Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe),
Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa and Angola both elephants
and rhinos were killed. In the 1970s and especially 1980s, the
military groups UNITA in Angola and RENAMO inMozambique
also faced accusations of killing elephants for their ivory.
Today, elephants are being killed in conflict zones across Central
and West Africa. Reports of killed elephants come from many
of the West African range States, as well as from Cameroon,
South Sudan, the DRC, and the CAR. Many reports suggest
declines of 50 to 90 per cent of some local elephant popula-
tions in CAR and the DRC alone (Beyers
et al.
2011; Bouché
et
al.
2010; 2011; 2012).
Environmental crimes flourish in conflict zones for several rea-
sons. During a period of conflict, the normal rule of law is not en-
forced and environmental crime such as illegal logging, poach-
ing and mining becomes rampant. Indeed, the conflict in the
easternDRC, whichhas caused the loss of over possibly6million
people in two decades, has been driven primarily by the greed
and extraction of natural resources (UNEP-INTERPOL 2012).
Organized criminals and buyers actively request and pursue
THE ROLE OF IVORY IN CONFLICT AND
ORGANIZED CRIME
The illegal trade and poaching of
wildlife and plants alone is worth
USD 5–20 billion annually, and
this money is often used to help
finance conflicts.
Figure 15:
Political conflicts, civil unrest and African elephant
range area.