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mining, place additional stress on people and the
environment, which increases their vulnerability.
A new wave of extractive industries in the Andean
region (e.g. large-scale, open pit mining) also poses
challenges for local people and high elevation
systems, including on water resources, livelihoods
and social relationships (Bebbington & Bury, 2009).
While several governmental policies have favoured
rural and indigenous communities in Bolivia over
the last decade, discrimination of ethnic minorities
still constitutes a significant barrier to adaptation.
The highest numbers of indigenous people in the
Tropical Andes live on the steep valleys of the high
sierra in central Peru and in the Altiplano. Among
the many and diverse indigenous groups in the
mountains, Quechua and Aymara are the largest.
A significant proportion of these groups are small-
scale farmers, who are particularly vulnerable to
climate change. However, traditional ecological
knowledge is a significant capacity for adaptation
(Berkes et al., 2000). Thriving in some of the world’s
most difficult environments demonstrates ingenuity
and adaptability; capacities that are underutilized by
society due to social structures, including poverty
and ethnic discrimination. For example, a study
showed that indigenous people living in the northern
part of the Altiplano are particularly vulnerable to
climate change due to poverty and lack of education
(Valdivia et al., 2013). Furthermore, for many people,
mountains and glaciers also have a deep cultural and
religious significance.
Due to sexist social structures, women often have
fewer tools available for adaptation, such as access
to education, financial credit and participation in
local and national governance. Sexism and other
forms of discrimination, such as racism and poverty,
combine to make many women in the high Andes
particularly vulnerable to climate change. In a study
on particular Aymara communities in the Altiplano,
about 30 per cent of women and 10 per cent of men
did not speak Spanish (Valdivia et al., 2013). This
was partly due to unequal educational levels and
access to external services. However, recent years
have seen an improvement, as women become both
more educated and more included in local decision-
making. To succeed, adaptation policies must target
such social barriers by considering the needs and
opinions of women, especially in areas with high
levels of emigration.
Some social causes of vulnerability not only increase
the vulnerability of the underprivileged, but also
enhance the capacity of the privileged. For example,
the overrepresentation of men in parliament could
mean that their issues are given disproportional
weight; and the entitlement of the rich is enhancing
their adaptive capacity by reducing that of the
poor. The representation of women in parliament
differs substantially along the range, from Bolivia
at 52 per cent and Ecuador at 42 per cent to the
less representative 17 per cent in Venezuela, 20 per
cent in Colombia, and 22 per cent in Peru (World
Bank, 2015a).
Multiple capitals and large cities are located in the
Tropical Andes. Bogotá is the most populated,
with approximately 9 million inhabitants. Other
big cities include Medellín, Quito, Cusco, El Alto
and La Paz. Sixty million people live on the range
at between 1,000 and 4,500 m.a.s.l. About half of
these live in Colombia. Bolivia is the country with
the highest percentage of its population living in the
mountains (90 per cent). Population growth and
international and internal migration are key factors
in determining vulnerability to climate change.
Migration (including temporary) often constitutes
an essential element of adaptation for families and
communities. Meanwhile, changes in land use,
population growth and unsustainable exploitation of
resources are, in combination with climate change,
threatening the capacity of the Andes Mountains to
provide ecosystem services needed in both the high-
and lowlands.
Urbanization and international migration, to both
large and smaller cities in the region, affect migrants
and those left behind. Migrants often receive
increased wages, improving both their own situation
and helping their dependents and community.
Remittances from migrants play an important role
in providing adaptability and resilience in rural
communities, while migration from the mountains
reduces strain on vulnerable ecosystems. On the
other hand, emigration can erode local institutions
and governance arrangements that influence access to
resources. Emigration also leaves rural communities
with a reduced labour force, and migrants often face
significant difficulty establishing themselves in a new
area. Dependency relationships with urban centres
could also prove problematic if remittance levels
were to go down.
All countries in the region have high levels of
urbanization and population growth. These trends
will significantly increase and concentrate the
demand for services and resources, which are
already often threatened by climate change, such as
water resources and agricultural goods (Buytaert and
De Bièvre, 2012). Demographic trends and social
challenges must be considered in combination with
climate change to develop successful adaptation
policies across all policy sectors.