Eternal India Encyclopedia

Ancient Concepts, Sciences & Systems

Eternal Indua

encyclopedia

rainfall during the different seasons of the year.

Panini’s land use classification included cultivated (

karsa

) and

uncultivated waste land (

usara

) and pasture (

gochara

); crops

grown and the quantities of seed required for sowing. Three crops,

sown respectively in the rainy season and stored in Magha (Janu-

ary-February); in autumn and stored in Chaitra (March-April); and

third sown in spring stored in Jyestha (May-June) were mentioned

during this period. Knowledge of the requirements of different

crops led to a rudimentary form of crop rotation. The resources and

needs of the farmer determined the number of crops undertaken and

sometimes the state intervened in the additional crops that should

be undertaken by the farmers in the interest of taxes that can be

collected. Patanjali also informs of the mixed crops that were also

undertaken.

Megasthenes records that the Mauryan monarchs considered

construction of tanks and reservoirs for irrigation as acts of welfare

and religious merit, which the State was expected to provide. Thus,

Pushyagupta during the reign of Chandragupta Maurya constructed

the Sudarshana Lake in Saurashtra, which was later restored by

Tusaspa, the Yavana Governor of Ashoka. The breach suffered by

this reservoir was repaired by the Parthian Minister (

amathya

)

Suvishaka, the Governor of Rudradaman, the Saka ruler of that

time. The successors of Rudradaman continued this tradition in

western India.

The central and south Indian tanks, constructed with great en-

gineering skill during the beginning of this civilization, still serve

the purpose for which they were made. The embankments on the

river Kaveri, and the several canals, constructed by Karikala I

during the first century A.D., for utilization of the water bear

testimony to this effort. During this period, tank sub-committees

of the village assemblies maintained the upkeep of the tanks.

Under royal patronage like the Guptas in the Gangetic basin,

Malwa, Gujarat and Kathiawar; of the Vakatakas and Chalukyas in

the Deccan; and the Pallavas in the south agriculture got diversified

and agricultural product-based trade flourished in different parts of

this country during the Classical Age and later.

The Chinese pilgrim, Hiuen Tsang, who visited India, while

describing the agricultural prosperity of India, during that period,

has recorded the existence of a short duration rice (maturing in 90

days), wheat, ginger, mustard, tamarind, mango, melon, wood-

apple, pear, plum, peach, apricot etc.

Encyclopaedic references of the period like

Amarakosha

and

the

Brihatsamhita

have special chapters for agriculture called

Krishi Parasara which include the existing knowledge and practice

relating to soil classification and land use; manuring, rotation of

crops, irrigation, agricultural meteorology, tillage implements, pro-

tection from diseases and pests, care of draught animals and

grazing of cattle. The rites and ceremonies enjoined with religious

practices, including the superstitions of the day, were intricately

woven into the social fabric of the ancient Indians.

The

Amarakosha

describes 12 types of land depending upon

the soil, irrigation and physical characteristics. While the

Bhu-

mivarga

describes the soils depending upon their texture, the

Vai-

syavarga

describes soils fit for the different kinds of crops.

The

Brihatsamhita

describes the seed treatment to ensure

initiation of infloresence and fruit bearing of tree crops, sprouting

and growth of luxurious stem and foliage.

Agnipurana

and

Krishi Parasara

recognise the value of

manuring to crops and describe the method of preparation of the

compost which contribute to the fertility of the soil. Even though

these authors did not investigate the precise chemical action of

these manures, they certainly understood the fertilizing property

and the physical effects of the manure upon the texture and its role

on the water holding capacity of the soil.

The

Amarakosha

gives the names of a number of agricultural

implements which were in use such as

langala, hala,

(plough),

yugakilaka

(pin of yoke),

langaladanda

(shaft of the plough),

prajana

todana

(goad),

kotisha

(harrow),

khanitral tie

(spade or

hoe),

datra, lavitra

(sickle),

yotra

(tie for fastening the yoke to the

plough),

medhi

(post for threshing grain on the floor),

surpa,

praspotana

(winnowing basket) and

calani, titau

(sieve). The

Krishi Parashara

gives a detailed description of the plough. Ac-

cording to this the plough is made up of the following garts :

Yuga

(yoke),

addacalla

(pins of the yoke),

isa

(pole of the plough),

niryola

(rod of the plough exclusive of the pole and the plough-

share),

shaula

(an extra piece of wood that tightly fixed the

niryola

pashika

(plates),

halasthanu

(strong piece of wood fixed to the

niryola

at the end opposite to where the ploughshare is fixed)

paccani

(goad made of bamboo with iron top),

abandha

(iron rod

which prevents niryola from getting out of the pole,

yoktra

(tie) and

phala

(ploughshare). Other implements are also mentioned like

shrni

(sickle),

khanitra

(hoe),

musala

(pestle),

udukhala

(mortar),

shurpa

(winnowing basket), (winnowing fan),

calani

(sieve) and

methi

(threshing post).

Manuring practices were in vogue. The

Brihatsamhita

says that

seeds are to be sown with the addition of pork or venison into the

soil and sprinkled daily with water mixed with milk. The

Agnipu-

rana

recommends manuring the soil with powdered barley, ses-

amum and the offal matter of a goat mixed together and soaked in

washings of beef for seven consecutive nights. The washings of

fish should be sprinkled on these.

The farmers of the ancient days were evidently aware of the

fertilising properties of the flesh of animals, fish-washings and

farm-yard manure consisting of the excreta of various animals.

This was the result of practical experience and not based on scien-

tific knowledge. Modern science has taught us that farmyard

manure contains all the essential plant nutrients viz., nitrogen,

phosphoric acid and potash but the ancient farmers had obtained

this knowledge on the basis of empirical observations.

Land was classified into 12 types depending on the fertility of

the soil, irrigation and physical characteristics in the

Amarakosha.

The 12 types were

urvara

(fertile),

ushara

(barren),

maru

(desert),

aprahata

(fallow),

shadrvala

(grassy),

pankila

(muddy),

jala-

prayamanupa

(watery),

kaccha

(land contiguous to water),

shar-

kara

(land full of pebbles and pieces of limestone),

sharkaravati

(sandy),

nadimatrika

(land watered from a river) and

devamatrika

(land watered by rain).

Due recognition was given to irrigation, both natural and artifi-

cial. River water and monsoon accumulation was diverted to the

fields in northern and north-eastern India whereas stored water in

tanks, pools and wells was utilized in central, north-western and

southern parts of India. Rules for erection of dykes and restoration

of decayed dykes were also framed. During the eighth century, King