Eternal India Encyclopedia

ARCHITECTURE

Eternal India

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for trade and commerce between the Iranian plateau and the Indus

valley region. Artistically the region was also diverse, reflecting

the Greeks, Romans the newcomers, Sakas(who were a branch of

the western Scythians from Transoxiana), Parthians who had

moved from their Iranian homeland in the first century A.D. The

important regions are Bactria (with its capital city of Bactria or

Balkh in modern Afghanistan), Gandhara (capital at Sirkap or

Taxila — Takshila in Pakistan), Swat valley of Pakistan. This

entire region was known as Gandhara and the term is often used to

broadly define the art styles that developed in the North-West, that

is now Pakistan and Afghanistan, in the early centuries of the

Christian era. Some of the early structures in this region include the

apsidal temple at Sirkap, Taxila in Pakistan belonging to the first

century A.D. and the so-called "shrine" of the double-headed

Eagle. Sculptured heads and figures found here and at Bimaran in

Afghanistan indicate that images of Buddha were made in both

Indie and non-Indic styles and forms. Traditional art historical

scholarship has viewed the popularity of depicting Buddha images

in stone during the second and third century A.D. during the Mahay-

ana period but artistic evidence shows that they were created even

during the Hinayana period.

The Kapisa region at the site of Begram (Afghanistan) has

yielded important archaeological material which clearly show influ-

ences from Hellenistic Graeco-Roman and Parthian art, while at

Bimaran is the reliquary all of which displays an Indian Buddhist

iconography with images of Buddha in

abhaya mudra

while the robe

emphasises a classical style. The hand posture meant granting the

absence of fear, it really implied a teaching gesture for it is the

understanding of Buddha's teachings that one is granted in the

absence of fear. In the Swat valley, the Buddha images are more

closely tied stylistically to the Parthian idiom than to Hellenized

works in the large wide-open, drilled eyes, the wrinkled forehead,

rosette motif but iconographically they are Indian, especially in the

seated posture of

vajraparyankasana

(legs crossed with feet up-

ward and resting on the opposite thigh) and

abhaya mudra.

The

northern region (the Mathura region) also yielded Buddhist figures

but stylistically tied to the flattened style of the pre-Kushana

period, displaying however similar

vajraparyankasana, abhaya

mudra, usnisa

(cranial protuberance) and a halo as in the Gandhara

region. Although there are some unusual features here the

iconographic similarity of Buddha images all over signifies the wide

dissemination of textual descriptions of the Buddha. It is likely that

the use of images was more common among the laity than the

clergy (as the Mahayana text claims). Thus what began in the

Saka-Parthian period in the form of syntheses of a wide range of

foreign motifs, styles and ideas with Indian religion, iconography

and other elements was to continue in the Kushana period in the

N.W and northern regions during the late first century A.D to third

century A.D.

The Kushanas (also known as the Yueh-chih) who were resi-

dents of the Kansu Bactria region of N.Western China, arrived

about 135 B.C. and its ruler Kadphises I founded the dynasty in

lands from the Aral sea, much of Afghanistan, Pakistan and North-

ern India. Vima Kadphises and Kaniskha I (who founded the

Kanishka era -120 A.D.) patronised Buddhism and helped in the

dissemination of Buddhist culture in India and China. The stupa

built in his capital, Kaniskapura (near modern Peshawar), was one

of the largest. The two main spheres of Kushan art that are gener-

ally recognised are the Bactro-Gandharan region where strong

Hellenized and Iranicized works were produced, while in northern

India more works in Indian style were produced, due to Kushana

patronage. An important aspect of Kushana art are inscribed royal

portraits, especially those of Vima Kadphises, and Kanishka

garbed in Scythian attire and boots, and enshrined in the shrine at

Mat, near Mathura (UP). It provides important information regard-

ing the Kushana cult and divine kingship and uses the term,

dinapu-

tra

(son of god) giving a new meaning to Kushana kings.

A very common subject depicted in Gandhara art of the Kushana

period is the Buddha image. Many of the standing Buddha figures

are barefoot, with a heavy robe covering both shoulders, well-

defined features, wavy hair, with a realistic treatment of the face,

which displays a debt to the classical tradition of Hellenistic and

Roman art. However, iconographically, in the representation of

usnisa,

elongated ear lobes and in seated postures, the pose of the

dharmachakra mudra

(turning of wheel of law, a teaching gesture)

and

dhyana mudra

(a meditative gesture) while such differences in

style are easily observed, they are difficult to interpret in the light of

present knowledge. Another important subject is the Bodhisattva,

a concept which is inextricably tied to the Mahayana belief that

every being can attain Buddhahood. This concept is said to be more

popular in Mahayana than Hinayana thought.

MATHURA

Like Buddha images, Bodhisattvas are depicted which are re-

cognisable by symbols, headdress and attributes held in their

hands, features which became increasingly codified as the Buddhist

religion developed. A few Gandhara images depict the

jataka

stories and narrative scenes from the life of Sakyamuni which may

be based on. the Divyavardana or Lalitavisteva or other texts.

Other noncanonical texts on his life, such as the

Buddha Charita

and

the

Saundara Nanda

(composed by Asvaghosa) may have also

served as a source of this art. The southern capital of the Kushanas

was at Mathura, in N.India, which included a vast area and where a

purely Indian stylistic heritage existed. Although none of the major

architectural monuments have survived intact, loose Buddhist

sculptures at Mathura show that the Mathura school shares

iconographic features with the Gandhara school. Other subjects

beside Buddhas and bodhisattvas, include

yakshis

and

yakshas,

well as non-Buddhist sculptures such as the Hindu god

Karthikeya

and

Surya

(sun god). Strong evidence of Jain religion is found at

Mathura, particularly at Kankali Tila.

The artistic developments in Gandhara and Mathura were par-

alleled by complex cave monuments in the western Deccan during

the 2nd and 3rd centuries. In the Chaitya hall at Karle is seen the

fruition of the forms at Bedsa, the former dated to 120 A.D. In the

large

chaitya

hall at Karle is evidence of a wooden architecture

completing the structure of the facade, while lifesize elephants

support the superstructure, reminiscent of those in the caves at

Pitalkhora. Another addition is the large

mithuna

(couples) flanking

the doorway, which are symbols of union. They are voluptuous,

with wide lips, full thighs and rounded breasts, spontaneous and

life-like resembling Mathura sculpture. The interior space (which

is the largest among the Indian caves) is more elaborate in regard to

the pillar decoration consisting of

purnaghata-

type vase for its

base, lotus-bell capitals and human riders on animals . Another im-

portant cave is at Nasik dated to 124 A.D. especially Vihara III

which shows greater regularisation of symmetry than in earlier