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PEOPLE
Eternal India
encyclopedia
mats and baskets. The Kotas of the Nilgiris subsist on carpen-
try, tool making and pottery.
v
Pastoral and cattle herders:
The Todas of the Nilgiris in
South India are a pastoral type, with the care of buffaloes and
the duties connected with the dairy farm as their sole occupa-
tion. Even their religion is centred on the buffalo. Other herders
in South India are the Gollas, Kurubas and Lambadas. In west-
ern India the cattle herders are the Bharwads and Rabaris of
Gujarat.
vi
Folk artist type:
Tribes whose main occupation is snake
charming, singing and dancing, acrobatics, conjuring etc. The
Kalbelas of Rajasthan (snake-charming, magic shows, singing
and dancing), and' Dommaras of Andhra Pradesh (acrobatics )
fall in this category.
vii
Labourers:
Agricultural and non-agricultural. Agricultural
work is available in the locality itself. Non-agricultural work is
available in the locality as well as distant places. Chotanagpur
in Bihar is a well-known source of non-agricultural labour. The
tribals of this area have been working in the tea gardens of
Assam and in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The Santhals
have been employed in the Bihar iron mines and industry.
viii
Traders
: The Bhotiyas of Almora and Garhwal in Uttar
Pradesh have close business contacts with the border areas of
Tibet. They sell food materials, cosmetics and articles of daily
use in exchange for goods like salt, borax, wool, sheep etc.
The establishment of tea plantations in Assam provided larg-
escale employment for tribals and put them into direct touch with
the forces of modernisation. It also gave them settled employment
and a break from subsistence living. The next stage was the
opening of mines, coal, manganese and iron ores in the hitherto
isolated tribal areas and the location of basic, large-scale modern
industry in the central zone. These developments have accelerated
the pace of assimilation and development for such of the tribals
who have found employment in the plantations, mines and facto-
ries.
Social and Political Organisation
We must generally know about social organisation of tribes in
some detail. Anthropologists state that a tribe is an organisation of
people who identify distinctly from others in terms of culture,
language and other typical features with some degree of racial
homogeneity and clan system. Kingship exercises greater influ-
ence in family and community activities. The political unity of a tribe
lies in drawing the kins together at larger levels of phratry and
moiety. Law and religion are peculiar institutions, governing their
life. Totemism describes their religious faith. On the whole a tribe
is a peculiar system with distinctive features of culture, language
and race. It is cut away from modern societies.
Most of the tribes have a headman, generally hereditary in
nature, who acts as the spokesman of the community in dealing
with outsiders and who settles disputes. The headman is generally
the eldest man of the dominant clan. In some of the bigger tribes
like the Santhals, Bhils, Mundas etc there are two headmen each
with his own field of interest and prescribed duties. Some tribes
(the Mundas of Chotanagpur) elect their leader.
Most tribes have a council of elders headed by the headman
who settles disputes, takes decisions regarding ceremonies, agri-
cultural schedules etc. The panchayat which consists of all the adult
members of the village also settles disputes and serves to express
the common will of the village community. These institutions have
overlapping functions and authority varying from situation to situ-
ation.
In the new democratic set-up in India, statutory panchayats
based on elections have been created by the Government. These
have eroded the powers of the tribal panchayat. There is a great
variety of familial organisation. The Gaors and Khais, two of the
most important tribes of the north-eastern region, are based on the
matriarchal. Most others are patriarchal familial organisation.
Forms of Marriage
Monogamy, in which union takes place between a man and a
woman, is the most prevalent form of marriage among the tribals.
Marriage is generally of the permanent type. In certain tribes (the
forest hunting tribes of South India viz. Irula, Kathunayakan, Korga
of Kerala and Yandani of Andhra Pradesh) divorce and remarriage
are common. Divorce could be on account of ill-treatment in the
husband's home or because of barrenness on the part of the wife.
Along with monogamy the most common form of marriage is
polygamy. It has two major types. They are polygamy. Polygamy
is a broad category implying multiple spouses. Specific types are
discussed separately. Polygamy (one husband having many
wives) has been adopted by the Nagas in the Himalayan region,
Gonds and Baiga in middle India and the Uralis, Muthuvans, Kan-
ikarras, Paliyans, Pulayas in south India.
Polyandry (a number of men with a common wife) is practised
by very few tribes. The practice is concentrated among the tribes of
the central and north-eastern Himalayan region in the north and
some tribes of the Nilgiri Hills and some other parts in the south.
The Khasas of Dehra Dun and the Todas of the Nilgiri Hills
although they generally practise monogamy now, practise fraternal
polyandry to some extent. Among the Khasas when the eldest
brother marries, his wife is also regarded as the wife of his younger
brothers.
There are eight ways of acquiring a mate among the tribes of
India. They are: a) Probationary marriage; b) Marriage by capture;
c) Marriage by trial; d) Marriage by purchase; e) Marriage by
service; f) Marriage by exchange; g) Marriage by mutual consent
and elopement and; h) Marriage by intrusion.
Probationary marriage has been reported from among the
Kukis. A young man may live with a girl in the latter’s house for
some weeks at the end of which they may decide to marry if they
find themselves to be compatible. Otherwise, they separate with
the young man paying compensation in cash to the girl’s parents.
Marriage by capture is prevalent among the Nagas and the Itos,
the Gonds and the Bhils. Among the Gonds, simulated capture
often takes place at the request of the girl’s parents in the case of
girls who have remained unattached too long. The bride’s party
makes a pretence of resistance when the bride is carried away. A
mock fight takes place and the bride is expected to weep and
lament.
Besides physical and simulated capture, there is also ceremo-
nial capture. Among the Kharias and the Birhors, a man desirous of
marrying a woman will lie in wait for her in a public place or a fair
and surprise her by applying vermilion mixed with oil to her fore-
head. This is regarded as being tantamount to marriage.
Some tribes require a young man to prove his courage and
physical prowess before he can claim the hand of any girl in