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high number of booby traps and mines in the DRC, only a very
small portion of these may affect gorillas, but those placed on
ridges typically can do so, or those near outskirts of fields if
raiding gorillas are common. Snares are also sometimes set
deliberately for gorillas, or more often gorillas are caught in
snares set for other wildlife.
The primary impact of the conflict on gorillas and other wild-
life, however, is not from direct contacts with them, or from
repurcussions as described in the box, but through the exploi-
tation of natural resources and disruption of law enforcement
in the region, as well as the creation of huge refugee camps
in need of fuel. Armed militias, and even regular soldiers, are
used deliberately as escort for trucks transporting minerals,
timber or charcoal across the land Some of these are originat-
ing from protected areas, and transported across borders with
armed escort. Even in instances where border guards are not
bribed, their security is seriously jeopardized if they attempt to
stop the transport.
The killing of gorillas for bushmeat, instances of killing gorillas
as revenge for confiscation of illegal charcoal or law enforce-
ment, or the destruction of gorilla habitat as a result of log-
ging, charcoal, agricultural expansion or mining are among the
primary causes of habitat loss, and eventually, the decline in
eastern gorilla populations.
War and instability also affects conservation resources deriving
from tourism. When the Rwanda Patriotic Front (RPF) moved
into Akagera National Park in October 1990, it resulted in an
immediate drop in tourism and revenues, particularly in the
Virungas, which they partially occupied in 1991. The rugged for-
ested borders of Rwanda, Uganda and the Democratic Repub-
lic of the Congo (DRC) were used as a hide-out and for smug-
gling up until after the Rwandan genocide in 1994 (Kalpers
2001; Rubasha 2008). Then, some two million people – many
linked directly or indirectly to the genocide – fled to Tanzania
and especially to the DRC, mainly settling around the Virunga
National Park, but some in South Kivu. By early 1995, around
at least 720, 000 refugees were living in five camps (Katale, Ka-
hindo, Kibumba, Mugunga and Lac Vert) in the DRC bordering
the park. At least 80,000 refugees moved into the park daily
to collect firewood, and resulted in a deforestation rate of 0.1
km
2
per day, along with that of an emerging charcoal business,
which the CNDP took over when they took control of the park
UNEP’s 2009 report From Conflict to Peacebuilding: The role
of natural resources and the environment identified a major
gap in UN peacekeeping operational planning with regard to
environment-conflict linkages. Since 1990, at least 18 violent
conflicts have been fuelled by the exploitation of natural re-
sources. In situations where environmental issues have the
potential to re-ignite conflict or finance rebel groups, DPKO
operations should begin to consider how natural resource ex-
traction and management can be monitored to support peace
and stabilization.
UNEP’s recent report Protecting the Environment during
Armed Conflict: An Inventory and Analysis of International
Law recommended that the United Nations define “conflict
resources”
*
, articulate triggers for sanctions and monitor
their enforcement. It subsequently advised that the mandate
of peacekeeping operations for monitoring the illegal exploi-
tation and trade of natural resources fuelling conflict as well
as for protecting sensitive areas covered by international en-
vironmental conventions, should be reviewed and expanded
as necessary (on the model of MONUC mandates from UN
Security Council Resolutions 1856 and 1906).
In Resolutions 1856 of December 2008 and 1906 of December
2009, the UN Security Council mandated the United Nations
Mission in DRC (MONUC) to “use its monitoring and inspec-
tion capacities to curtail the provision of support to illegal
armed groups derived from illicit trade in natural resources.”
In 2009, UNEP entered into a technical cooperation with
DPKO/DFS. One of the objectives of this collaboration is to
examine DPKO’s options for improving its operational plan-
ning to address natural resource risks using its existing re-
sources, in particular within the Integrated Mission Planning
Process (IMPP). UNEP together with UNDP will also assess
how the use of natural resources could support Disarmament,
Demobilization and Reintegration processes and create jobs
and livelihood opportunities.
*
UNEP recommends that the United Nations adopt the definition of
“conflict resources” suggested by Global Witness: “Natural resources
whose systematic exploitation and trade in a context of conflict con-
tribute to, benefit from or result in the commission of serious viola-
tions of human rights, violations of international humanitarian law, or
violations amounting to crimes under international law.”