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under cultivation (Tilman 1999). Wrong or excessive application of
chemical fertilizersmay have negative effects on the environment
as well as human health (Godfray
et al.
2010; FAO 2013a).
Ecologist David Tilman (1999) argues that the next doubling of
global food production would be driven by a threefold increase
in nitrogen and phosphorus fertilization rates, a doubling of
the irrigated land area and an 18 per cent increase in cropland.
The concern is that these inputs will further alter the diversity,
composition and functioning of the world’s natural ecosystems
significantly, and affect their ability to provide society with
essential ecosystem goods and services such as food. Based
on past trends in agricultural expansion, Tilman
et al.
(2001)
estimated that 1 000 million hectares of natural ecosystems
would need to be converted to agriculture by 2050, and this
together with increases in nitrogen- and phosphorus-driven
eutrophication of terrestrial, freshwater and near-shore marine
ecosystems, would cause dramatic ecosystem simplification and
significant loss of ecosystem services such as food production.
Food loss and waste in agricultural production
Food loss during agricultural production is caused by a variety
of factors including damage by pests, diseases and unfavorable
weather, poor handling and premature harvesting. Selective
harvesting, labour shortages, over-planting, natural drying,
spillage and spoilage during transportation also cause food
loss and waste. Market-based practices such as stringent
quality standards and processing requirements contribute to
food loss en route to consumers (Springer 2013).
In developing countries, losses in the agricultural production
and post-harvest stage are highest. Of the total amount of
food that is lost and wasted in sub-Saharan Africa, as much as
67 per cent is lost during the two first stages of the supply chain.
In South and South-East Asia the situation is similar, with just
over 60 per cent lost during production and post-harvesting,
closely followed by Latin America at about 62 per cent. High
losses in the early stages of the supply chain are mainly due
to inadequate financial and structural resources for proper
harvesting, storage and transportation, as well as unfavourable
climatic conditions for food preservation (FAO 2013b).
Two food categories – fruits and vegetables, and roots and
tubers – have the highest percentage of loss during agricultural
production and post-harvest, at about 22–26 per cent. These
are also the commodities that have the highest overall loss
and waste rates, both at approximately 45 per cent. About
30 per cent of all cereal production is lost or wasted, while
23 per cent of oilseeds and pulses, and meat, and 17 per cent of
dairy products are lost or wasted (FAO 2012c).
According to the FAO (2013b), 1.4 billion hectares of land, or
28 per cent of the world’s agricultural land area, is used every
Area cultivated and yield per hectare
Percentage
Source: World Bank Indicators, on line database, accessed on September 2013
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
2009
Yield
Kilogrammes
per hectare
Area cultivated
hectares
Cereal production increase
50
100
150
200