ACQ Vol 11 no 2 2009

23 / 68

Literacy
ACQ Volume 11, Number 2 2009 85
Julie Marinac
This article
has been
peer-
reviewed
Keywords
diagnosis
dyslexia
evidence
based
practice
phonological
awareness
reading
impairment
secondary
school
appear that this inexplicable and unexpected failure to
achieve age-appropriate literacy skills has not changed over
time in nature, occurrence or presentation. What appears to
have changed is the social acceptability of the terminology
used to describe literacy learning failures, and our
understanding of this phenomenon.
There is general consensus that dyslexia is a complex
syndrome that moves beyond the traditional “reading” to
“reading-related processes” (i.e., beyond “reading” to include
spelling, and written language), and changes in presentation
with age and learning experiences (e.g., Benson, 1994;
Blachman, 1997; Grigorenko, Wood, Meyer, & Pauls, 2000;
Oakhill & Beard, 1999; Richardson & Weydell, 2003). A
further complication to the terminology and definitional
debate has been introduced in the 2000 revision of the
Diagnostic and Statistical Handbook of Mental Disorders
(DSM–IV American Psychiatric Association). This reference
text, which provides definitive clinical diagnostic guidance
for medical professionals, no longer includes “dyslexia” per
se but rather describes two learning disorders that correlate
with dyslexia – Reading Disorder (RD, 315.00) and Disorder
of Written Expression (DWE, 315.2) (DSM–IV TR, 2000).
Under this system, students who experience difficulty in both
reading and spelling could be diagnosed as having either
co-morbid or sequential disorders. For example, those who
have difficulty acquiring age appropriate reading skills before
demonstrating delays in written language and/or spelling
would be diagnosed as having RD. If the student then
demonstrates functional reading abilities but still experiences
difficulties in producing age appropriate written work, the
diagnosis would become DWE (e.g., sequential disorders).
Diagnostic subtypes of dyslexia
Notwithstanding these terminological issues, those who
work in the field rely on diagnostic subtypes of dyslexia to
guide assessment and intervention (Morris et al., 1998). At
least three primary subtypes have been reported: 1) “visual”
or “visual-perception” (Warnke, 1999), 2) “surface” dyslexia
(Castles & Coltheart, 1993), and 3) “deep” or “phonological”
dyslexia (Stanovich, Siegel, & Gottardo, 1997).
Visual dyslexia
The first category involves the letter reversals that suggest
the classic dyslexia of “strephosymbolia” (Orton, 1995).
Anecdotal evidence regarding the success of therapy (e.g.,
the introduction of “coloured glasses”, etc.) has been
reported, but Evans (1998) suggests that such visual
confusion, in isolation, should not even be defined as
Dyslexia, as a reading disability, has been
widely studied with consistent evidence being
reported regarding underlying deficits,
aetiology, and effects. Almost all of this
research has focused on the primary school
sector where students are still developing
literacy skills. Very little research is available
to guide those who work with students who
have similar deficits in secondary school. This
can lead to a situation in which data taken
from the developmental population are applied
to students who are expected to have mature
rather than emerging literacy skills. This report
provides an overview of different types of
dyslexia and summarises the research relating
to dyslexia in secondary school students. It
proposes that secondary school and adult
populations present with phonological
processing (PP) based dyslexia rather than
developmental reading impairments, and
presents clinical implications for speech
pathologists and teachers.
Defining dyslexia
Dyslexia is defined as a “complex, biologically rooted
behavioural condition resulting from an impairment of
reading-related processes and manifested in difficulties
related to the mastery of reading up to the level of population
norms under the conditions of adequate education and a
normal developmental environment” (Grigorenko 2001, p.
94). It is a complex disorder, found in children, adolescents
and adults, demonstrated by unexpected difficulty in learning
to read that is not attributable to general cognitive delay,
psychiatric or neurologic disorders, sensory impairment or
inadequate instruction (World Federation of Neurology,
1968). Current practices may lead to the use of alternative
terminology or a complete avoidance of such “labelling”. For
example, reading difficulties or impairment may be used, as
the term dyslexia “has often been avoided in educational
practice because of its predominant emphasis on within-
child causative factors and its perceived effects on social
policy” (Reason, Frederickson, Heffernan, Martin, & Woods,
1999, p. 16). From the evidence in the literature, it would
Dyslexia in secondary
school students
Evidence from the literature
Julie Marinac