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Ancient Concepts, Sciences & Systems
Eternal India
encyclopedia
ARTHASHASTRA
Arthashastra
is defined by Kautilya as "the science which
treats of the means of acquiring and ruling the earth". In other
words the art of government in the widest sense. The 15 books of
Kautilya's
Arthashastra
were produced probably in the fourth cen-
tury B.C. It was not the first work of its kind. There wfere four
distinct schools (those of Manu, Brhaspati and Ushanas) and
thirteen individual teachers of
Arthashastras
including Visalakhsa
and Bharadraja, before Kautilya. The loss of this fairly extensive
literature is to be attributed to the masterly treatise of Kautilya, the
minister of Chandragupta Maurya who was a contemporary of
Alexander the Great. Alexander's incursions into India (320-325
B.C.) had shown the need for establishing a central political and
military power to exercise authority over the multiplicity of smaller
states that were in existence at the time. According to the Latin
historian, Justin, Chandragupta Maurya met Alexander in the
Punjab but offended him with his blunt speech. The conqueror
ordered that Chandragupta should be put to death. He escaped and
while wandering in the Vindhya forest he is said to have been joined
by Kautilya (or Chanakya), a Brahmin who had travelled there from
his home in Taxila. With the help of treasure found buried under-
ground he gathered an army for the young Chandragupta who
succeeded to the Nanda throne in 321 B.C. and went on subdue the
North-West, driving out the Greek garrisons and established the
greatest of India's ancient empires. Kautilya's varied experience as
the adviser to the ruler of the first great empire in Indian history is
reflected in his
Arthashastra.
In general, moral considerations have
no place in Kautilya's statecraft, its sole guiding principle being the
interest of the State. He recommends without scruple any means,
fair or foul, that may bring success against the enemy.
Kautilya, however, generally agrees with Manu in recommend-
ing mild and beneficial measures to be adopted towards a conquered
country. The conqueror should "adopt the same mode of life, the
same dress, language and customs as those of the people. He
should follow the people in their faith with which they celebrate
their national, religious and congregational festivals or amuse-
ments."
When a weak king is attacked by a powerful king he should seek
the protection of a powerful king or shut himself up in an impreg-
nable fort. If this is not possible the weak king should rather accept
the most humiliating terms, biding his time to free himself from this
situation. He should resort to intrigue by producing internal distur-
bances through the agency of spies and destruction of stores and
granaries. He may encompass the death of his enemy when enter-
ing a temple to offer worship. He should be made to accept, through
a pretended friend belonging to the weak king's camp, a supply of
poisoned food for use in his capital city.
Kautilya enumerates the following six-fold policy determining
relations betwen states: 1)
Sandhi
(Treaty of Peace or Alliance 2)
Vigraha
(war) 3)
Asana
(Neutrality) 4)
Yana
(making prepara-
tions for war without actually declaring war 5)
Samshraya
(seeking
the protection of another) 6)
Dvaidhibhava
(making peace with one
and waging war with another). Kautilya discusses in detail the
conditions under which a ruler should adopt one or the other of these
policies. The sole guiding principle is the material welfare of the
state : "A wise king", says Kautilya, "shall observe that form of
policy which, in his opinion, enables him to build forts, to construct
buildings and commercial roads, to open plantations and villages, to
exploit mines and timber and elephant forests, and at the same time
to harass similar works of his enemy." A king should always prefer
peace to war in consideration of the immense disadvantages in-
volved in waging war against an enemy, for war leads to wastage of
human life, drains resources etc. In case the Vijigisu (or would-be
conqueror) feels himself inferior to his enemy he should enter into
any of the various Sandhis described in-the treatise.
"A single wheel cannot turn, " says the
Arthashastra
"and so
government is only possible with assistance. Therefore a king
should appoint councillors and listen to their advice." Book Two of
the Arthashastra contains detailed instructions on the bureaucracy.
It suggests that in order to ensure that no one official grew too
powerful, departments should be headed by more than one chief
officer. Officials should be transferred frequently and no govern-
ment servant should be allowed to take any decision without refer-
ence to his superior except in an emergency. The king is directed by
Kautilya to examine constantly the character of all deparmental
heads and their subordinates. No chief officer should be allowed to
hold his office permanently. Stating it is not possible for officers
directly dealing with government finance and revenue not to enjoy
even slightly the taste of state money, Kautilya prescribes meas-
ures against corruption.
In Kautilya's penal code no Brahmin could be tortured for any
criminal offence nor could he be awarded the death penalty (except
for sedition). A Brahmin guilty of a criminal act could be branded on
his forehead and banished from the country.
Kautilya rejects the view of Bharadraja who advises the minis-
ter to usurp the throne after his master's death. He declares that
the succession should be preserved since usurpation of the throne
by the minister may lead to popular anger.
Kautilya is of the opinion that success eludes the person who
consults the stars too much. Book 14 deals with certain recipes for
the destruction of the king's enemies and for causing blindness, in-
sanity and various kinds of diseases and deformities. Medical for-
mulas are given for making a man invisible to his enemies and
making him see at night. Incantations are to be uttered for causing
men and animals to fall asleep.
Kautilya's statecraft is based on an efficient system of espio-
nage. The
Arthashastra
gives a detailed picture of the working of
the secret service in two chapters. The high state functionaries,
including even the ministers, were subject to the vigilance of the
spies. There were spies planted in the establishment of an enemy
who accepted salary from the enemy while engaged in collecting
information about the latter's kingdom.
The
Arthashastra
deals with all the main concerns of life -
religion, ethics, family, marriage etc — because the Hindu state did
not limit itself to police functions, the maintenance of law and order
and the administration of justice. It was all-pervading and touched
the whole of life. Refer K-30
SELECTED REFERENCES
Indian Inheritance.
Vol III Science and Society. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan 1956
The Cultural Heritage of India
Vol II Ramakrishna Mission 1969.
The Wonder that was India,
A.L. Basham, London 1969.