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ACQ
Volume 11, Number 2 2009
ACQ
uiring knowledge in speech, language and hearing
of the commonly used images may actually undermine
the enduring importance of spoken language for literacy
development and the relevance of SPs in the literacy area.
SPs with knowledge about the shortcomings of pre-service
training for teachers in language will be better equipped to
promote the importance of spoken language for literacy, and
their own role in both spoken and written language.
Various definitions of literacy
Every scientific investigation requires a clear statement of the
topic under consideration. Wilson (2005) stated that without
attention to definitions, we literally do not know what we are
talking about, resulting in much theory and practice being
disconnected from the real world. He cautioned that even
commonly used terms for which we think we share
definitions (for example, memory and cognition) are used
with a range of meanings. Lack of a single precise
consensus definition of literacy is a serious issue in research
and policy. Definitions vary widely and include (see Education
Queensland [2008] for an extended list):
•
literacy is the ability to read and write (De Lemos, 2002, p. 3);
•
literacy [includes] listening, reading, speaking, viewing (still
and moving images) and writing, for a range of purposes
in a variety of contexts (Education Queensland, 2002,
p. 6);
•
literacy is the flexible and sustainable mastery of a
repertoire of practices with texts of, and produced
in, traditional and new communication technologies
(Education Queensland, 2000, p. 9).
In addition, the word literacy is also used to mean
“competence”, “skills with computers”, “critical thinking”, or
even “communicating” generally. Unfortunately, if literacy has
Table 1. Summary of historical perspectives of literacy
Dominant
Conditioned
Natural
Information
Sociocultural
Engaged
Reconditioned
perspective learning
learning
processing
learning
learning
learning
Period
1950–1965
1966–1975
1976–1985
1986–1995
1996–2004
1996–2004
Motivating Political attention in
Dissatisfaction with US government
Clinical research Interest in students’ Accountability and
force
US focused on
behaviourism as an funding for the
findings proved
motivation and self- national testing
“fixing” literacy
explanation for
creation of literacy less promising in efficacy beliefs
Difficulties in testing
problems
literacy learning
research centres practice than
literacy
anticipated
Broader
Behaviourism
Psycholinguistics
Cognitive
Postmodernism,
Computers redefine Productivity
influences
Advances in
psychology
cultural
“text” and concept
agendas
neurology
Kantian philosophy anthropology
of literacy
Concern about
Artificial intelligence
Experiential learning “falling literacy
standards”
View of
Literacy is
Literacy is a natural
Literacy is
Literacy is the
Literacy is expression Literacy is
literacy
conditioned
process, an innate mechanistic
creation of a mutual
of the individual’s
conditioned
behaviour
human capacity,
information
understanding in a construction of
behaviour (although
developed through
processing,
social interaction meaningful and
student’s motivation
meaningful use
organising and
within a context at
socially valuable
is important)
storing knowledge a particular time
knowledge
Focus on Perceptual activities
Exposure to written Story grammar, text Social and
Meaning making
Sub-skills; mainly
Observable behaviour texts in meaningful
cohesion and
contextual
strategies
for beginning or
Individual skill
situations
structure, text
contributions
Development over
struggling readers
Controlled vocabulary Individual skill
genres
Outcomes less
time
Individual skill
Authentic literature Individual skill
important than
Authentic literature Controlled
Controlled
process
vocabulary
vocabulary
Authentic literature
Top down Bottom up
Top down
Bottom up
Top down
Top down
Bottom up
Implications Literacy can be
“Whole language” Intervention focused Teachers are
An “integrated”
Garnered support
broken into sub-skills philosophy. Literacy on text-processing facilitators or
view of literacy as from researchers
which can be rein-
encompassed all
strategies, e.g.,
guides only
cognitive, aesthetic and practitioners in
forced in systematic
language arts
summarisation,
Emergence of
and sociocultural
special education
instruction
“Diagnosis” is
mapping, self-
“critical literacy”
Concept of deficiencies ascertaining how questioning and
Interest in developing the “unexpected”
predicting
diagnostic instruments responses reflected
and remedial
attempts to make
techniques
meaning
References Pearson & Stevens,
Chomsky, 1975;
Anderson, 1977;
Chipman, 1993;
Dewey, 1910/1991; Coltheart, 2005;
1994; Skinner, 1974 Clay, 1976;
Reynolds, Sinatra Sfard, 1998;
Gillingham, Young Paris & Urdan,
Goodman &
& Jetton, 1996;
Vygotsky,
& Kulikowich, 1994 2000; Torgesen,
Goodman, 1980;
Rumelhart, 1980;
1934/1986
1998
Halliday & Hasan,
Stanovich, 1986
1976