Eternal India Encyclopedia

Eternal India

encyclopedia

ARCHITECTURE

architecture.

The

construction

was

begun

1513

Krishnadevaraya but it remained incomplete after the fall of

Vijayangar in 1565. The Queen's bath at Hampi is a blend of Hindu

and Muslim architecture. It has elaborate stucco work and

projecting balconies. The Lotus Mahal which resembles the spread

petals of the lotus is a blend of Hindu and Islamic motifs. These

buildings reflect the catholicity of outlook of the Vijayanagar rulers,

particularly Krishnadevaraya.

The Pandyas built impressive temples, such as the rock-cut

Vathivanikovil temple at Kalugumalai essentially a free standing

building that was liberated from the surrounding matrix of rock so

that it would have stood in a pit when completed — resembling the

Kailasanatha at Ellora (which may be contemporary). Interesting

are the major images on the uppermost tier of the temple super-

structure with Uma-Mahesvara on the east, Dakshinamurthi Shiva

on the south, Narasimha on the west and Brahma on the north. Siva

in his Visapaharana murti is a gracious form when he swallowed a

dreadful poison that threatened the world with destruction.

The later Pandyas concentrated on building imposing

gopurams

(gateway towers) which became the most important element of the

temple complex. There was a shift in emphasis from the main

vimana to the gopuram. The most famous and beautiful of these is

the Minakshi temple complex at Madurai, the ancient Pandyan

capital. The central shrine has a court completely covered up by

gopuram entrances on the east and west. Three miles east of the

temple is a stepped tank — the largest of its kind in southern India.

The temple at Srirangam, a great centre of Vaishnavism, has seven

concentric courts, each with gopurams in its walls. The gopurams

are covered with sculptured figures. The temple at Chidambaram is

dedicated to Shiva, Lord of Dance. There are four courts each with

large gopurams. Scenes of the dance illustrating all 108 dance

poses are in small panels arranged on the inner walls on either side

of the gopuram entrance.

THE CHOLAS

The style of the Pallavas was developed further under the

Cholas (10-12th Centuries). Their finest monuments are the

Brihadisvara temple at Tanjavur (Tanjore) by Raja Raja the Great

and the temple at Gangaikondacolapuram, near Kumbakonam, built

by his son and successor, Rajendra. The former has the loftiest-

known vimana (200 ft high) topped by a sikhara stone believed to

weigh 80 tons and said to have been hoisted after being dragged up

on a ramp four miles long. Gangaikondacholapuram, now a deserted

village near Kumbakonam, was once the Chola capital. It was built

by Rajendra to commemorate his victories which extended Chola

power up to the banks of the Ganges and his naval expeditions

which occupied parts of Burma, Malaya and Sumatra. The vimana

of the temple here though smaller than the one at Tanjavur sur-

passes it in the quality, fineness and variety of its sculpture.

From the eighth-twelfth centuries, the eastern region (equiva-

lent to the modern states of Bihar, W.Bengal, Bangladesh) was

host to artistic activity. In Bihar (derived from Vihara) where nu-

merous Buddhist Viharas existed and pilgrims from China, South

East Asia, Nepal, Tibet came during the Pala-Sena period, a major

art school influenced Asia. Hinduism too reached a peak especially

during 11-12th century A.D. The Palas were great patrons of Bud-

dhism, but gradually they were over-shadowed by Hindu develop-

ments due to complex sociological and cultural changes within the

society, and by the end of the 12th A.D. the advent of iconoclastic

Muslims here resulted in the destruction of important Buddhist and

Hindu monuments. Yet a large corpus of sculpture and a few

paintings have survived in black chlorite, stone, metal, bronze and

wood. The basic tendency of sculptural style was toward increased

elaboration of detail, complexity of iconography, stylisation of form

and stiffening of body postures and facial features and detailing of

surrounding elements at the expense of the prominence of the

central figure. A number of monasteries and sites, such as the

cruciform stupa at Baharpur in Bengal contains monumental en-

trances. The temple rises in three tiers which were once decorated

with 63 stone images.

However, Hindu art remains of the late Pala period are also

found. The structures (16th Century Bengal) display a rich variety,

influenced by Islamic types, of Hindu art in the form of representa-

tions of Surya, Uma, Ganga, Vishnu with slight iconographic vari-

ations stylistically, while earlier works betray Gupta and post-

Gupta style. Images from Vikramapura (12th), Paraspura, (early

12th), Palgiri (Bangladesh), and from Kurkihar in stone, bronze, and

silver indicate superb craftsmanship. It also indicates that artists

were producing religious images of great beauty. The tradition

halted at a high point mainly due to cessation of patronage.

ORISSA

The art and architecture of Orissa form a distinct unit displaying

styles from the Western Chalukyas and Andhra Pradesh. During

the rule of the Somavamsis, the temple of Lakshmana in Siripur

(late 6th and 7th C) was built. Of special interest is the shape and

forms of the curvilinear

sikhara,

almost cylindrical in form with a

low, heavy appearance, typical of early Orissa style. The clear

division into horizontal stories

(bhumis)

with vertical sections

made through

candrasala

decorations is seen. However, Orissa art

becomes clear with the emergence of the Sailodbhavas (7th) and at

Bhubaneswar (Tribhuvaneswar) a tradition of temple building for

the next 700 years was initiated. The best preserved is the Parasu-

rameswar temple (of the Pasupata sect) of 8th C A.D. consisting of

vimana

and a mandapa. (In Orissan architecture specified names

are given to every part of the temple and described in texts). In the

vimana (curvilinear spire) at each of the 4 corners is a series of pro-

jections that demarcate the sikhara into

bhumis

(horizontal levels)

by means of

bhumi amla

(ribbed elements) at the corners. As

Orissa architecture developed, this feature becomes elaborate and

complicated, but essentially the classification remains constant.

Like other temples, it is surrounded by a compound, delineating

a sacred area. In contrast to the plain interior of the temple, the

exterior of the

deul

(short, square tower) and

jagmohan

(adjoining

mantapa) are embellished with architectural and decorative designs

arranged within strict horizontal and vertical divisions. Each divi-

sion and motif serve a specific purpose in the overall scheme of the

monument.

The Lingaraja temple at Bhubaneshwar is the culmination of the

Orissan style of temple architecture, its soaring spires can be seen

for miles. In its very elegant proportions it is one of the most refined

examples of temple architecture in India. Built sometime in the 11th

C it consisted of only the shrine tower and main hall. Later the

banquet hall and dance hall were added. Vertically, the tower roof is

divided into a central rib, an intermediary rib on either side and two

corner ribs. The central rib is adorned with the 'bho' motif which is