Eternal India Encyclopedia

ARCHITECTURE

Eternal India

encyclopedia

ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE

INTRODUCTION

Islam imposed itself on the social and religious structure of

India and nothing illustrates more graphically the religious diversity

than the contrast between their places of worship and their archi-

tecture. The mosque has no need of a central shrine, while the focal

point of the temple is a sacred chamber. Architecturally the mosque

is wholly visible and intelligible, while the temple is not; while the

Hindus convey their meaning by iconography and carved figure

compositions, the Muslims broke up their wall surfaces in patterns

of different coloured marble and tiles. The contrast between spiri-

tual and aesthetic concepts as embodied in these typical structures

was great, but all differences became merged in a unified effort of

craftsmanship. The real excellence of this Indo-Islamic architecture

was due to the knowledge and skill possessed by the Indian crafts-

men, particularly in the art of working in stone. Islamic architecture

in India passed through three different experiences : the Delhi, or

Imperial, the Provincial and the Mughal.

INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE

The invasion of India by the Muslims from the 11th century on-

wards led to the birth of Indo-Islamic architecture with its flowering

during the Mughal period and its absorption into the Indian scene.

When the pre-Mughal Sultans came to rule over India, they trained

the local craftsmen to new assignments (instead of imposing the

heritage of Islamic architecture in West Asia, North Africa and

Mediterranean Europe); hence the initial stages were a bit clumsy.

By the 13th century, the mosque,

madrasa

and

maqbara

became

common building activity.

Fairly extensive building programmes took place under the Sul-

tanate of Delhi (Slave Dynasty). In the 13th century, was built the

Quwat-ul-Islam mosque complex, with a massive arched screen,

pillared double cloister, multiple entrances and a minar. The Arhai-

di-ka- Johnpara mosque in Ajmer built by Iltutmish has a straight,

flat roofed prayer chamber and a delimiting compound wall with or

without cloisters. The earliest creations at Delhi, Kaman, Bayana,

Badami and Ajmer were assembled out of ruins on standing local

structures.

At Bayana and Bharatpur the locally celebrated Ukha (Usha)

Mandir (of 9th century A.D.) was converted into a mosque (subse-

quently re-converted partly into the temple again) where it con-

tained 10th-11th century characteristic pillars,

vandana mala

(flying arches) of exquisite workmanship and a Garuda banner.

Along the pillars and backwall, were created mosque features such

mihrabs

and perforated windows. The Sultanate, Khilji, Tugh-

laq, Lodi, Sur and Mughal involvements in organising the construc-

tion of the Temple-Mosque complex make the place important

although the formative period was during the Tughlaq times. The

same processes occurred at Dhar, Ajmer, Kaman etc.

The architectural development of Delhi between the 13th and

16th centuries was unique and it reflects the rise and fall of the

various dynasties — the Slave sultans, Balban, Khiljis, Tughlaqs

(Sayyids and Lodis) till the Mughals. In this total period of 2V

centuries (pre-Mughal era) the capital was shifted from the initial

Qila Rai Pithora to Siri, Tughlaqabad, Jahanpanah and Kotla Firoz

Shah in Firozabad.

The later Tughlaqs brought a shift in constructional technique -

- towards massive construction on an extensive scale. Firoz's

buildings were functional (non-functional ornamentation was

discouraged) especially the Shikargarhs and pyramidal structures.

Thus the period from Qutb-ud-din Aibak to Muhammad-bin-

Tughlaq was a period of ruggedness coupled with lavishness and

dignity, while from the time of Firoz there was simple elegance,

functional emphasis and planned design and layout of greater quan-

titative output. Firoz's work influenced the Sayyids and Lodis who

added an important element, the cluster of superstructural cupolas,

chattris,

massive

chajjas

and low plinth, squattish domes and pro-

fuse use of sandstone as seen in Isa Khan's tomb in Delhi and

Gwalior (1547). The Lodis also introduced the Islamic mausoleum.

In Delhi (in Siri fort) the Lodis converted the mausoleum into a

complex, entered by a gallery and provided with a mosque, sepa-

rately - which the Mughals copied in some of their mausolea, which

conferred a ceremonial

maqbara

scheme on these structures. They

also introduced the "double dome" (a separate inner and outer shell

at two stages of the central rise)to confer slenderness to the build-

ing as followed in Mughal times as in Sikander Lodi (1518).

Until the time of the Lodis, there were 25 major mosques in

Upper India (excluding Punjab and Kashmir), Malwa, Mandu, Delhi

and Bengal built of durable materials.

The essential elements of Islamic architecture, the arch, dome,

vault and minar were included in pre-Mughal architecture, but

suitably adopted through the Indian genius.

Islamic architecture was unique, in the sense that it was the

creative exposition of Indian environment, revealing several facets

of Indian genius. It was different from Asian mosques which had

their

qibla

designated by the backwall of the prayer chamber and did

not have more than one central

mihrab

(a niche indicating the qibla

or direction of prayer) for nearly three centuries. In India there was

a very deliberate multiplication of the

mihrab

all along the mosque

wall in front of every axial bay or of the facade arch. Besides a

separate mihrab for the Zenana gallery at one end was provided for

in a congregational (Jami) mosque. The creation of mosques

showed that they formed a pattern — every town had a jami masjid,

a few private mosques and one

Idgah.

The architectural efforts of the pre-Mughals have a rigid con-

formity and conventionality in layout, elevation and facade design,

which undergo a change in principles of spanning. In the Mughal

period there was a total standardisation and idealisation of the

building vogues. Art followed architectural traditions in which the

Indian craftsmen excelled and the brick architectural vogues in _

which the Persians specialised (as in miniature painting). The

variation in spanning was largely due to the adoption of

lakhaur

brick (in place of rubble stone) hearting which was more versatile.

Mughals had superior building mortar (than hankar lime) leading to

inlay cement. While the pre-Mughal exterior skyline was monoto-

nous, with a domination of the dome, Mughal skyline was 3-

dimensional, with massing screen walls (Buland Darwaza) and ex-

pansive; domes sit lightly and there is linear rhythm.

The style of constructions erected by the Afghans and the

Mughals respectively differed visually although not stylistically

(Islam Builds in India

by K.V. Soundara Rajan). The former was

marked by structural conservation, traditional ornamentation, of

sandstone on marble used only for Quranic calligraphy and decora-

tion of mihrabs etc. But with the Mughals, it was the opposite; their

architecture was comprehensive, highly aesthetic, profuse usage of

sandstone and marble, as well as established well-laid out cities