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Thomas-Hope, 1998) have highlighted the importance of such
public-private partnerships for increased efficiency and flexibility
in waste governance. In Latin America, municipalities commonly
exercise their responsibilities directly or through contracted
private operators (large companies and/or microenterprises).
Other arrangements can include public-private partnerships,
cooperatives and microenterprises, which are often created to
manage recycling.
Waste legislation in relation to mountains
National and sub-national legislation
National and sub-national legislation that specifically
concerns waste management in mountain regions is
largely non-existent. Mountain regions generally fall under
the same national and sub-national waste legislation as
other geographic regions and are not given any special
consideration. Similarly, international legislation, such as
conventions on waste management (for example, the Basel
and Stockholm Conventions), apply equally to mountain
regions, once adopted into national legislation.
Several countries have enacted national and sub-national laws
for the equitable and sustainable development of mountains
that may have some bearing on waste management practices
in mountains. These laws aim to promote the socioeconomic
development of mountain communities while simultaneously
protecting mountain ecosystems. Examples of this approach
can be found in Austria, Italy, France, Switzerland, Canada,
Nepal, Georgia and Russia (North Ossetia/Alania).
International legislation
At the international level, there are only two mountain-specific
conventions that address the sustainable development of
mountain regions. These both have implications for waste
management. The Alpine Convention is an international
treaty bringing together eight European nations and the
European Union for the sustainable development and
protection of the European Alps. Article 2 includes an
objective “to develop a system of waste collection, utilization
and disposal whichmeets the special topographic, geological
and climatic requirements of the Alpine region, paying
particular attention to waste avoidance”. The protocol for
implementing soil conservation also touches (cursorily) upon
the issue of waste management. A specific Implementing
Protocol for waste management is yet to be formulated
(Alpine Convention, n.d.).
The Framework Convention on the Protection and
Sustainable Development of the Carpathians (Carpathian
Convention) brings together seven states and is the only
multi-level governance mechanism that applies to the entire
mountainous region. Article 6 on ‘Sustainable and Integrated
Water/River Basin Management’refers to adequate sanitation
and treatment of wastewater. The Convention does not
directly refer to ‘waste’ but Article 10 on ‘Industry and Energy’
states that the parties to the convention “shall promote
cleaner production technologies, in order to adequately
prevent, respond to and remediate industrial accidents and
their consequences, as well as to preserve human health
and mountain ecosystems”. It also states that parties “shall
aim at reducing adverse impacts of mineral exploitation on
the environment and ensuring adequate environmental
surveillance on mining technologies and practices”.
Other conventions have a specific bearing on mountain
ecosystems, resources and populations. These include the
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC), the United Nations Convention to Combat
Desertification (UNCCD) and the Convention on Biological
Diversity (CBD). In light of the impact of human activities
and waste on the environment, all of these conventions are
concerned with waste management.
Declarations and ‘soft-law’ instruments also exist that
concern mountain peoples and ecosystems. Chapter 13
of Agenda 21, ‘Managing Fragile Ecosystems: Sustainable
Mountain Development’, recognizes the fragility of
mountain ecosystems and outlines the environmentally-
sound management of municipal solid waste. This includes
maximizing the 3Rs (Reuse-Reduce-Recycle) for safe and
sound waste management.
Two of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals emphasize the
importance of pursuing sustainable mountain development.
Mountain-related targets are listed under goal 6.6, which
aims to “… protect and restore water-related ecosystems,
including mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers...” and goal
15.4, which aims to “… ensure the conservation of mountain
ecosystems, including their biodiversity, in order to enhance
their capacity to provide benefits that are essential for
sustainable development” (United Nations Sustainable
Development Knowledge Platform, 2015).