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rational value. But the decision concerning the consequences of various
policies for the system of communication and authority is an extremely
complicated issue that presupposes an exact and total sociological
knowledge. This implies that even if the hypothetical situation of free
communication could be realized, our inadequate knowledge of society
and history renders the rationality of political choices problematic.
Lastly, Habermas' theory of rationality overlooks the complex forms
of interrelations and interactions between the systems of action and
interactions. The only "point emphasized by Habermas in this regard is
Marcuse's notion of "surplus repression".36 Ultimately for Habermas,
technological development and the rationality of instrumental systems
create increasing possibilities for democracy and practical rationality.
Marx' theory of forces and relations of production foreshadows
Habermas' extreme optimism. According to Marx, the technological
developments of advanced capitalist societies contradict the alienating
structure of captalist social relations and correspond to a new form of
authority structure that is egalitarian, democratic, and non-alienating.37
Likewise for Habermas technology is either neutral or exerts a positive
influence on democracy. Reality, however, is more complex than this
utopian picture of social dynamics. It might be argued, for example, that
there can exist contradictions between the norms of efficiency and
democracy. This is clearly reflected in two different visions of socialism.
Socialism can be conceived either as a centralized and planning state
or as a decentralized and production-for-use-oriented society. Unfor-
tunately, the centralized, bureaucratic state with central planning for the
entire economy is not all democratic. Habermas' practical rationality is
virtually impossible to achieve in such a society. The planning model of
socialism, however, might experience some instrumental rationality.
Actually, the political strategy of Stalinism was based upon the develop-
ment of the forces of production at the expense of democratic social
relations. On the other hand, a decentralized model of socialism that
may be able to experience popular democracy and participation in
decision-making seems to contradict the norms of efficiency and
technological complexity. The potential conflict between instrumental
and practical rationality is manifest in the classic criticism of capitalism
by Marx. Capitalism, for Marx, is characterized, among other things, by
a general contradiction between the rationality of parts and the