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ACQ
uiring knowledge
in
sp eech
,
language and hearing
, Volume 11, Number 1 2009
11
MULTICULTURALISM AND DYSPHAGIA
system between the two separate language systems, and
strong interconnecting channels between each of these
systems. Therefore, it would seem bilingualism may not be
just a matter of “which language” but “how to involve both
languages, at the same time”. This may be new territory for
speech pathology.
Speech pathology practices in
bilingual contexts
Bilingualism or multilingualism is the norm, and not the
exception, for most of the world’s communities (Baker, 2000;
Cummins, 2000; Mahon et al., 2003) and unsurprisingly,
bilingual children form a substantial percentage of speech
pathologists’ caseloads all over the world, not least in
Australia (Hand et al., 2000; Sochon & Hand, 2001). There
have been a number of attempts to tackle the difficulties of
valid assessment in these groups. There are a number of ways
that knowledge about bilingualism, versus a monolingual
perspective, shows itself in such practices. We will examine
just two examples of these.
guals. It is also the case that second language acquisition
involves the right hemisphere more than it does in first
language acquisition, and that left hemispheric involvement
increases as proficiency in a second language increases. These
results may be related to the fact that the left hemisphere is
associated with the core analytical aspects of language, while
the right may be involved in more pragmatic aspects of
language. This research has also indicated that learning a
second language through the understanding of grammar,
spelling and irregular verbs will result in more left hemi
spheric involvement, while learning a language in a natural
manner and using it for day-to-day communication will
involve more right hemisphere involvement. There are differ
ences by age of acquisition, with more marked differences
present for later second language acquisition.
These two somewhat different lines of evidence (code
switching and neurological activity) both suggest that bilin
guals use and process language differently to monolinguals,
and function as unique and specific speaker-hearers (Baker,
2003; Grosjean, 1989). Baker (2003) conceptualised this as
early bilinguals being likely to have a shared conceptual
Table 1: Terminology
First language; L1
The first language a child is exposed to, from birth, as the language of interaction. Often also
known as the “home language” or “native language”. This may or may not be a child’s dominant
language (see below).
Second (or subsequent)
A second language to which is child is exposed, usually sequentially or later than the first
language(s); L2
language, typically at school. May become the dominant language. Sometimes used to refer to the
less well-known language when two languages are spoken at home.
Equal proficiency
A very rare situation where a bilingual can be said to be equally proficient in two or more
languages. More commonly, proficiencies vary between the languages, e.g., in literacy, in
comprehension, in vocabulary, in social conversation etc.
Dominant language
1. The language in which the person has the greatest proficiency. This may or may not be the first
language. Often after being at school, a child with a different first language may have the
language of school (their second language) become their dominant one.
2. The dominant language(s) of a society. This may be judged by that in which the greatest
number of messages appear – e.g., street signs, newspapers, government publications, radio and
television programmes, education, public buildings and spaces, and entertainment. It is also a
sign of dominant culture.
Language of instruction The language used in schools as the primary means of instruction (i.e., by teachers). May be the
L1 or the L2 of a child, or their dominant or non-dominant language. Usually it is the dominant
language of the society.
Bilingualism and
A term meaning the existence of some degree of proficiency in more than one language. A person
multilingualism
may be said to be bilingual if they understand a second language but cannot speak it, can speak it
but cannot read or write it, can use it for conversation but not in cognitively demanding contexts,
or any other possible variations. Multilingualism is proficiency in more than two languages.
Bilingualism as a term often encompasses multilingualism.
Language loss
When a language proficiency decreases, usually through lack of use. May happen to an L1 where
L2 is dominant in the wider society.
Language fossilisation Where a language reaches a certain level, and does not continue to develop or to change as
languages normally do. Language in a migrant group may fossilise relative to the homeland,
where it continues to change.
Semilingualism
A non-favoured term, commonly resulting from a situation where parents use a language in
which they are not proficient in order to help their children learn it. Children are not exposed to
any model of a complete or rich language, and fail to develop one well. Long-term consequences
may be unclear.
Code switching
The use of terms, phrases or passages in one language when “speaking” another. Proficient
bilinguals code switch frequently with each other, to achieve the most efficient communication
given their mutual language skills, and may not be particularly aware of doing so. Non-proficient
users may code switch when they lack vocabulary or other language skills in the language they
are trying to speak, and substitute items from their other language(s). Hence code switching may
occur because of lower proficiency, but also as a sign of high mutual proficiency in speakers.